Bulk hydrogels traditionally used for tissue engineering and drug delivery have numerous limitations, such as restricted injectability and a nanoscale porosity that reduces cell invasion and mass transport. An evolving approach to address these limitations is the fabrication of hydrogel microparticles (i.e., “microgels”) that can be assembled into granular hydrogels. There are numerous methods to fabricate microgels; however, the influence of the fabrication technique on granular hydrogel properties is unexplored. Herein, we investigated the influence of three microgel fabrication techniques (microfluidic devices (MD), batch emulsions (BE), and mechanical fragmentation by extrusion (EF)) on the resulting granular hydrogel properties (e.g., mechanics, porosity, and injectability). Hyaluronic acid (HA) modified with various reactive groups (i.e., norbornenes (NorHA), pentenoates (HA-PA), and methacrylates (MeHA)) were used to form microgels with an average diameter of ∼100 μm. The MD method resulted in homogeneous spherical microgels, the BE method resulted in heterogeneous spherical microgels, and the EF method resulted in heterogeneous polygonal microgels. Across the various reactive groups, microgels fabricated with the MD and BE methods had lower functional group consumption when compared to microgels fabricated with the EF method. When microgels were jammed into granular hydrogels, the storage modulus (G′) of EF granular hydrogels (∼1000–3000 Pa) was consistently an order of magnitude higher than G′ for MD and BE granular hydrogels (∼50–200 Pa). Void space was comparable across all groups, although EF granular hydrogels exhibited an increased number of pores and decreased average pore size when compared to MD and BE granular hydrogels. Furthermore, granular hydrogel properties were tuned by varying the amount of cross-linker used during microgel fabrication. Lastly, granular hydrogels were injectable across formulations due to their general shear-thinning and self-healing properties. Taken together, this work thoroughly characterizes the influence of the microgel fabrication technique on granular hydrogel properties to inform the design of future systems for biomedical applications.

A flexible tyrosine-attached chemical lid prevents premature disengagement of growing oligosaccharides and triggers the synthesis of a high molecular weight polymer.

In this study, we evaluate hydrogels based on oxidized hyaluronic acid, cross-linked with adipic acid dihydrazide, for their suitability as bioinks for 3D bioprinting. Aldehyde containing hyaluronic acid (AHA) is synthesized and cross-linked via Schiff Base chemistry with bifunctional adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH) to form a mechanically stable hydrogel with good printability. Mechanical and rheological properties of the printed and casted hydrogels are tunable depending on the concentrations of AHA and ADH cross-linkers.