Abstract. Standard agent and action-based approaches in computer ethics tend to have difficulty dealing with complex systems-level issues such as the digital divide and globalisation. This paper argues for a value-based agenda to complement traditional approaches in computer ethics, and that one value-based approach wellsuited to technological domains can be found in capability theory. Capability approaches have recently become influential in a number of fields with an ethical or policy dimension, but have not so far been applied in computer ethics. The paper introduces two major versions of the theory -those advanced by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum -and argues that they offer potentially valuable conceptual tools for computer ethics. By developing a theory of value based on core human functionings and the capabilities (powers, freedoms) required to realise them, capability theory is shown to have a number of potential benefits that complement standard ethical theory, opening up new approaches to analysis and providing a framework that incorporates a justice as well as an ethics dimension. The underlying functionalism of capability theory is seen to be particularly appropriate to technology ethics, enabling the integration of normative and descriptive analysis of technology in terms of human needs and values. The paper concludes by considering some criticisms of the theory and directions for further development.Key words: capability theory, computer ethics, empowerment, freedom, justice, valuesComputer ethics (CE) -and indeed ethical theory in general -has typically been concerned with the normative analysis of individual intentional action or, somewhat less commonly, the character of individual actors. The standard topics of computer ethics such as invasions of privacy, misuse of personal data and disputed ownership of intellectual property appear to lend themselves well to such analysis, and -because organisations and states are intentional agents tooissues of regulation, legislation, corporate responsibility and other forms of collective action have also been relatively amenable to this approach. However, another set of normative issues exists of equal or arguably perhaps greater importance for which individual action/agent-based forms of analysis are less well suited, such as the role played by computers and associated information and communication technologies (ICT) 1 in globalisation and poverty. These issues are not ignored in CE -many textbooks include at least some discussion of topics such as the 'digital divideÕ -but they fit poorly with standard approaches and challenge CE to define a broader agenda. The purpose of this paper is to delineate what such an agenda might look like, at least in part, and to introduce some theoretical tools that could be brought to bear upon it.At the heart of a broader agenda for CE lies the need for styles of normative analysis that take the domain of value rather than that of agency or action as their departure point, enabling consideration to be given to the full ra...

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ABSTRACT

The conception of entropy came from the theoretical study of the steam-engine, and, neglecting refinements of mathematical treatment, can easily be illustrated. The motive power of the engine comes from the transformation of the heat generated by the combustion of the fuel. The mechanism transforms the kinetic energy of the molecules of heated steam into the kinetic energy of the parts of the engine. Consider a steamship under way: for a brief period of time this can be regarded as an automatic physical system. Some of the heat conveyed by the steam transforms directly into mechanical energy and some passes out into the ocean in the condenser water. We take the latter fraction: in the boiler there is a certain quantity, Q1, at a temperature of, say, 200°C, that is, 473° absolute, and its entropy is simply Q1/473° ab. The same quantity passes out into the ocean where its temperature falls to, say, 10°C, or 283° ab., and its entropy is now Q1/283° ab. Plainly the former quantity of entropy is less than the latter, so that in the transformation of heat into mechanical energy entropy has increased. The conception has been generalized so as to include all forms of energy and all physical transformations, and it can be shown that in all physical events that occur of themselves entropy increases. The conception includes these notions: (1) Available and unavailable energy; (2) greater or lesser improbability of the elements of the systems contemplated; and (3) the physical meanings of before and after.

Non-governmental development organisations (NODOs) are increasingly adopting knowledge-based roles such as lobbying, advocacy, policy formulation, research and dialogue facilitation. At the same time, they have on the one hand been criticised for knowledge errors and failures, and on the other been urged to adopt knowledge networking technologies. Building on earlier work which developed a three-dimensional model of knowledge based on contemporary epistemology and cognitive science, this paper develops a knowledge-based view of NODO activity, arguing that there is evidence of a complex range knowledge roles, involving some very demanding informational, epistemic and conceptual challenges. The expertise, skills and resources required for effective knowledge work can be supported by networks and networking technology, but only if deficits as well as benefits are recognised and if informational, epistemic and conceptual capacities are developed alongside technical expertise.