Osteoporosis is a civilization disease which is still challenging for contemporary medicine in terms of treatment and prophylaxis. It results from excessive activation of the osteoclastic cell line and immune cells like macrophages and lymphocytes. Cell-to-cell inflammatory information transfer occurs via factors including cytokines which form a complex network of cell humoral correlation, called cytokine network. Recently conducted studies revealed the participation of CX3CL1 chemokine in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. CX3CL1 and its receptor CX3CR1 present unique properties among over 50 described chemokines. Apart from its chemotactic activity, CX3CL1 is the only chemokine which may function as an adhesion molecule which facilitates easier penetration of immune system cells through the vascular endothelium to the area of inflammation. The present study, based on world literature review, sums and describes convincing evidences of a significant role of the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis in processes leading to bone mineral density (BMD) reduction. The CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis plays a principal role in osteoclast maturation and binding them with immune cells to the surface of the bone tissue. It promotes the development of inflammation and production of many inflammatory cytokines near the bone surface (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6). High concentrations of CX3CL1 in serum are directly proportional to increased concentrations of bone turnover and inflammatory factors in human blood serum (TRACP-5b, NTx, IL-1β, and IL-6). Regarding the fact that acting against the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis is a potential target of immune treatment in osteoporosis, the number of available papers tackling the topic is certainly insufficient. Therefore, it seems justified to continue research which would precisely determine its role in the metabolism of the bone tissue as one of the most promising targets in osteoporosis therapy.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 acids, PUFAs) are essential components of cell membranes in all mammals. A multifactorial beneficial influence of ω-3 fatty acids on the health of humans and other mammals has been observed for many years. Therefore, ω-3 fatty acids and their function in the prophylaxis and treatment of various pathologies have been subjected to numerous studies. Regarding the documented therapeutic influence of ω-3 fatty acids on the nervous and immune systems, the aim of this paper is to present the current state of knowledge and the critical assessment of the role of ω-3 fatty acids in the prophylaxis and treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI) in rodent models. The prophylactic properties (pre-SCI) include the stabilization of neuron cell membranes, the reduction of the expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, and KC/GRO/CINC), the improvement of local blood flow, reduced eicosanoid production, activation of protective intracellular transcription pathways (dependent on RXR, PPAR-α, Akt, and CREB), and increased concentration of lipids, glycogen, and oligosaccharides by neurons. On the other hand, the therapeutic properties (post-SCI) include the increased production of endogenous antioxidants such as carnosine and homocarnosine, the maintenance of elevated GSH concentrations at the site of injury, reduced concentrations of oxidative stress marker (MDA), autophagy improvement (via increasing the expression of LC3-II), and p38 MAPK expression reduction in the superficial dorsal horns (limiting the sensation of neuropathic pain). Paradoxically, despite the well-documented protective activity of ω-3 acids in rodents with SCI, the research does not offer an answer to the principal question of the optimal dose and treatment duration. Therefore, it is worth emphasizing the role of multicenter rodent studies with the implementation of standards which initially may even be based on arbitrary criteria. Additionally, basing on available research data, the authors of this paper make a careful attempt at referring some of the conclusions to the human population.

Introduction and objective. Spinal cord injury (SCI), which disrupts motor, sensory and autonomic functions, causes significant changes in the functioning of an individual. It is believed that most of the conditions secondary to SCI, i.e. osteoporosis, spasticity or cardiopulmonary diseases, are associated with immobility. The aim of the study is to assess the adherence to prescriptions of therapeutic exercises (APTE) in patients with SCI after acute phases of rehabilitation. Materials and methods. The criterionfor APTE recognition was the performance at least twice a week for a minimum of 30 minutes of active exercises with resistance, and exercises maintaining the range of movement of the joints The research tools were own questionnaire and the WHOQOL-BREF scale. Results. 46 subjects (63.9%) met the APTE criteria. The most frequent place for performing the exercises was the subject's home with 43 subjects (93.5%) with APTE performed the exercises in their homes. 17 subjects (36.9%) with APTE performed exercises during stays at various rehabilitation centres. The main cause for the lack of APTE was the limited availability of facilities considered necessary by the respondents to adhere to the instructions. In statistical analysis, the level of neurological injury correlated with meeting the APTE criteria. It was discovered that a subjective assessment of the exercise dose correlated with the place where the exercises were performed, but did not correlate with meeting the APTE criteria. Conclusions. The basic place for performing exercises (as instructed in hospital) was the subject's home. Limited access to reimbursed environmental therapy resulted in an increased cost of exercises supervised by commercially-employed physiotherapists. The current gaps in the system of supervision and counselling of subjects post-SCI necessitate changes in the Polish health care system.

Purpose: The study presents complications following spinal cord injury (SCI) in relation to aging. Views: It is estimated that there are approximately 6 million SCI patients in the world who are struggling with disabilities of the loco motor system of a paraplegic or tetraplegic nature. The effects of aging in a person with SCI are due to age factors related to abnormal health behavior, environmental impact, and the presence of comorbidities and complications. SCI entails numerous complications, the most common including infections of the urinary and respiratory systems, the formation of pressure ulcers, cardiovascular disorders, sleep disorders, depression, muscle atrophy and osteoporosis. In patients who have suffered a SCI, it was found that agerelated changes occur as early as 15 years following the injury, much more often than in the healthy population. The incidence of cardiovascular disease, for example, is 200% higher in people after a SCI than in the general population. It should be emphasized that SCI does occur within the young population, although recently there has been a significant increase in SCI in patients over 65, who as an age group are increasingly fit, and get involved in accidents. Conclusions: The complications of SCI affect the patient's independence and limit his or her activity and functioning in social, pro fessional and personal life. All this implies an assessment of the life quality of patients after a SCI. Also, the prolonged period of a pa tient's lack of independence resulting from osteoporosis, sarcopenia or cardiovascular diseases significantly increases the finan cial burden on the health and social care system.