BackgroundPhotocatalysis of titanium dioxide (TiO2) substrates is primarily induced by ultraviolet light irradiation. Anion-doped TiO2 substrates were shown to exhibit photocatalytic activities under visible-light illumination, relative environmentally-friendly materials. Their anti-spore activity against Bacillus anthracis, however, remains to be investigated. We evaluated these visible-light activated photocatalysts on the reduction of anthrax spore-induced pathogenesis.Methodology/Principal FindingsStandard plating method was used to determine the inactivation of anthrax spore by visible light-induced photocatalysis. Mouse models were further employed to investigate the suppressive effects of the photocatalysis on anthrax toxin- and spore-mediated mortality. We found that anti-spore activities of visible light illuminated nitrogen- or carbon-doped titania thin films significantly reduced viability of anthrax spores. Even though the spore-killing efficiency is only approximately 25%, our data indicate that spores from photocatalyzed groups but not untreated groups have a less survival rate after macrophage clearance. In addition, the photocatalysis could directly inactivate lethal toxin, the major virulence factor of B. anthracis. In agreement with these results, we found that the photocatalyzed spores have tenfold less potency to induce mortality in mice. These data suggest that the photocatalysis might injury the spores through inactivating spore components.Conclusion/SignificancePhotocatalysis induced injuries of the spores might be more important than direct killing of spores to reduce pathogenicity in the host.

Anthrax lethal toxin (LT) is the major virulence factor produced by Bacillus anthracis, but the mechanism by which it induces high mortality remains unclear. We found that LT treatment could induce severe hemorrhage in mice and significantly suppress human whole-blood clotting and platelet aggregation in vitro. In addition, LT could inhibit agonist-induced platelet surface P-selectin expression, resulting in the inhibition of platelet-endothelial cell engagements. Data from Western blot analysis indicated that LT treatment resulted in the suppression of p42/44 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in platelets. Combined treatments with LT and antiplatelet agents such as aspirin and the RGD-containing disintegrin rhodostomin significantly increased mortality in mice. Our data suggest that platelets are a pathogenic target for anthrax LT.

Anthrax lethal toxin (LT) is a major virulence factor of Bacillus anthracis. LT challenge suppresses platelet counts and platelet function in mice, however, the mechanism responsible for thrombocytopenia remains unclear. LT inhibits cellular mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), which are vital pathways responsible for cell survival, differentiation, and maturation. One of the MAPKs, the MEK1/2-extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway, is particularly important in megakaryopoiesis. This study evaluates the hypothesis that LT may suppress the progenitor cells of platelets, thereby inducing thrombocytopenic responses. Using cord blood-derived CD34+ cells and mouse bone marrow mononuclear cells to perform in vitro differentiation, this work shows that LT suppresses megakaryopoiesis by reducing the survival of megakaryocytes. Thrombopoietin treatments can reduce thrombocytopenia, megakaryocytic suppression, and the quick onset of lethality in LT-challenged mice. These results suggest that megakaryocytic suppression is one of the mechanisms by which LT induces thrombocytopenia. These findings may provide new insights for developing feasible approaches against anthrax.

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(2015) Acquired coagulant factor VIII deficiency induced by Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin in mice, Virulence, 6:5, 466-475, DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2015 Keywords: Anthrax, coagulation factor VIII, hemorrhage, lethal toxinMice treated with anthrax lethal toxin (LT) exhibit hemorrhage caused by unknown mechanisms. Moreover, LT treatment in mice induced liver damage. In this study, we hypothesized that a suppressed coagulation function may be associated with liver damage, because the liver is the major producing source of coagulation factors. The hepatic expression of coagulant factors and the survival rates were analyzed after cultured cells or mice were exposed to LT. In agreement with our hypothesis, LT induces cytotoxicity against hepatic cells in vitro. In addition, suppressed expression of coagulation factor VIII (FVIII) in the liver is associated with a prolonged plasma clotting time in LT-treated mice, suggesting a suppressive role of LT in coagulation. Accordingly, we further hypothesized that a loss-of-function approach involving treatments of an anticoagulant should exacerbate LT-induced abnormalities, whereas a gain-offunction approach involving injections of recombinant FVIII to complement the coagulation deficiency should ameliorate the pathogenesis. As expected, a sublethal dose of LT caused mortality in the mice that were non-lethally pretreated with an anticoagulant (warfarin). By contrast, treatments of recombinant FVIII reduced the mortality from a lethal dose of LT in mice. Our results indicated that LT-induced deficiency of FVIII is involved in LT-mediated pathogenesis. Using recombinant FVIII to correct the coagulant defect may enable developing a new strategy to treat anthrax.