The differences and/or similiarities between men and women have long been the subject of scientific inquiry and theory. Scientists have studied the sexes individually and in groups using family, social, and work settings to compare and contrast behavior. Linton (1963) observed male/female behavior and accredited the observed behavior differences to prescribed sexual social attitudes and types of behavior. He wrote, "The division and ascription of statuses with relation to sex seems to be basic in all social systems. All societies prescribe different attitudes and activities to men and women." (p. 74)Recent theorists have used reinforcement to explain the dissimilarities. Bardwick and Douvan (1971) stated that boys and girls are reinforced for proper sex role behavior. They postulated that males must conform to a more narrowly defined role than females. The female is allowed to exhibit types of behavior that range from "feminine" to "mildly masculine" (tomboy), and she will still receive praise from significant others. The male, however, cannot exhibit this wide range of behavior. He must not be "feminine" nor can he be "too masculine" (destructive, aggressive). Since the male role has been narrowly defined, the male transgresses more than the female and receives more negative responses from significant others. This hypothesis was supported by Lansky (1967) and Fling and Manosevitz (1972). Lansky used hypothetical situations to test parental reactions to sex-typed behavior. He presented the parents of preschool children with hypothetical situations in which a boy or girl chose either a masculine or feminine activity. He then recorded the parental reactions to these situations. When a girl chose a masculine activity neither parent was concerned. However, when a boy chose feminine activities, both parents, but especially the father, reacted negatively. Fling and Manosevitz questioned mothers and fathers about appropriate sex-typed activities for their sons and daughters. Again, both parents reacted much more negatively to inappropriate sex-typed activity for their sons than they did for inappropriate sex-typed activity for their daughters. In a review of literature concerning psychological differences of males and females, Maccoby andJacklin (1974) discovered that boys receive more physical punishment than girls do. Hoffman and Saltzstein (1967) observed that boys are subjected to more "simple power assertion". That is, they are more likely to be physically punished by being picked up and moved to another location. Girls, however, are more likely to be reprimanded with a verbal "no", and the authors continued that usually one "no" was sufficient to make the girls discontinue unwanted behavior.Bardwick and Douvan postulate that because the male's early relationships are often punishing, a boy will develop a sense of self and a criteria of self-worth which are relatively independent of others' responses. "He turns to achievements in the outer and real world and 15(1990)3 291Brought to you by |