After developing a trait version of the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS), we evaluated its reliability, its convergent validity with six other trait mindfulness measures, and its construct validity in relation to prior meditation experience. A sample of nonmeditators ( N = 218) and meditators ( N = 243) with a wide range of meditation experience completed the Trait TMS and the six other mindfulness measures. Internal consistency reliability of the Trait TMS was comparable to that of the original State TMS. Significant positive correlations were found between both TMS factors and the other mindfulness measures; however, in general, the correlations for TMS Decenter were higher than for TMS Curiosity. Scores for TMS Decenter were shown to increase with meditation experience, but this was not the case for TMS Curiosity. The TMS Curiosity factor may assess a unique aspect of the mindfulness construct. Implications of these findings in relation to future mindfulness research are discussed.

Mental health evidence concerning antisocial and psychopathic traits appears to be introduced frequently in capital murder trials in the United States to argue that defendants are a "continuing threat" to society and thus worthy of execution. Using a simulation design, the present research examined how layperson perceptions of the psychopathic traits exhibited by a capital defendant would impact their attitudes about whether he should receive a death sentence. Across three studies (total N = 362), ratings of a defendant's perceived level of psychopathy strongly predicted support for executing him. The vast majority of the predictive utility was attributable to interpersonal and affective traits historically associated with psychopathy rather than traits associated with a criminal and socially deviant lifestyle. A defendant's perceived lack of remorse in particular was influential, although perceptions of grandiose self-worth and a manipulative interpersonal style also contributed incrementally to support for a death sentence. These results highlight how attributions regarding socially undesirable personality traits can have a pronounced negative impact on layperson attitudes toward persons who are perceived to exhibit these characteristics.

We investigated whether turtles (Pseudemys nelsoni) could learn about a visual object cue to obtain food reinforcement by observing conspecifics that had learned the task. This study was designed with a three part task which, if completed by the observer turtles, would provide evidence of their abilities to learn from other turtles using stimulus enhancement, goal emulation, or copying. All four P. nelsoni turtles tested after observation of a trained demonstrator, whom they had direct access to during the demonstrator training trials, learned not only to follow another turtle to the stimulus indicating food, but also, in the absence of the demonstrator, to approach the correct stimulus regardless of spatial position. Therefore, all four P. nelsoni turtles tested showed evidence of stimulus enhancement learning. This is the first experimental study of social learning in any aquatic reptile demonstrating that they have the ability to learn from conspecifics.

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SummaryAgonistic behaviour of crayfish has been studied extensively in laboratory settings where pairs or groups of individuals are allowed to interact within an experimental arena. Crayfish agonistic behaviour within its natural context, however, has received little attention to date. The present, non-manipulative field study explored activity patterns, behavioural repertoires, and agonistic encounters of rusty crayfish (Orconectes rusticus) during the summer months using continuous, 24-hour, underwater video recording at a series of representative field sites. Following the filming, crayfish within the vicinity of the camera site were captured and measured. Individual densities were high, reaching a maximum of 68 individuals/m 2 at some sites. Large crayfish predominantly inhabited deeper sections of the river and were mostly active at night, whereas small crayfish generally utilized the shallows and were active outside their burrows during day and dusk. Time outside their shelter was mainly used for feeding. Individuals frequently returned to the same shelter they had emerged from. Agonistic encounters were common events and generally occurred in the context of shelter acquisition or defense. Dyadic fighting progressed with escalating sequences of stereotyped aggressive acts. Furthermore, high intensities with unrestrained use of claws were seen in encounters between size-matched opponents. The results of this study allow us to root laboratory findings of crayfish aggression within a comprehensive, ethological framework and to consider ultimate consequences for individual fighting decisions and strategies.