Can personality traits be measured and interpreted reliably across the world? While the use of Big Five personality measures is increasingly common across social sciences, their validity outside of western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) populations is unclear. Adopting a comprehensive psychometric approach to analyze 29 face-to-face surveys from 94,751 respondents in 23 low- and middle-income countries, we show that commonly used personality questions generally fail to measure the intended personality traits and show low validity. These findings contrast with the much higher validity of these measures attained in internet surveys of 198,356 self-selected respondents from the same countries. We discuss how systematic response patterns, enumerator interactions, and low education levels can collectively distort personality measures when assessed in large-scale surveys. Our results highlight the risk of misinterpreting Big Five survey data and provide a warning against naïve interpretations of personality traits without evidence of their validity.

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This paper analyzes how policy reforms and other factors have effected agricultural output in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. Price liberalization and subsidy cuts caused a decline in relative prices for agriculture, contributing to almost half of the output decline. Transition uncertainty and severe drought each caused an average output fall of around 10%. Privatization, farm restructuring, and the associated disruptions affected output through input adjustments and production efficiency changes. Their impact differs between countries, as it is conditional on initial conditions and reform and liberalization in the rest of the economy.

Abstract1 To make this comparison, we use nationally-representative household surveys in each of the five countries, restrict the list of assets and dwelling characteristics to those that are common to both the nationally-representative survey and the survey that was the basis for our analysis of the TVIP scores, and calculate wealth indices in the nationally-representative surveys, separately for urban and rural areas. We then re-calculate a wealth index in the surveys that we use to analyze the TVIP scores, giving each of the assets and dwelling characteristics the same weight that they receive in the calculation of the first principal component in the nationallyrepresentative survey. Finally, we graph kernel densities of the distribution of wealth in both surveys (See Online Appendix Figure 1). 2 Some examples include Schady (2011), who shows that children with low levels of TVIP scores before they enter school are more likely to repeat school grades and have lower scores on tests of math and reading in primary school in Ecuador; Case and Paxson (2008), who show that low performance on the PPVT at early ages predicts wages in adulthood in the United States; and Cunha and Heckman (2007) who use the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to show that, by age 3 years, there is a difference of approximately 1.2 standard deviations in PPVT scores between children in the top and bottom quartiles of the distribution of permanent income in the United States, and that this difference is largely unchanged until at least 14 years of age. More generally, there is a large literature that shows that vocabulary size in kindergarten and earlier predicts reading comprehension throughout school and into early adulthood (see the discussion in Powell and Diamond 2012, and the references therein). 3 These calculations give equal weight to each month of age, thereby standardizing for possible differences across samples in the age distributions of children. The t-statistics adjust for the possible correlation of errors at the level of communities or census tract in Colombia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Peru, and at the state level in Chile. 4 We thank an anonymous referee for pointing this out to us.5 In Peru, the TVIP was translated into Quechua, an indigenous language spoken primarily in rural areas of the highlands, and children were given the option of taking the test in Spanish or Quechua. Twenty-two percent of children in rural areas, but only 0.1 percent of children in urban areas, chose to take the test in Quechua. Because children in households that speak Quechua or another indigenous language may have more limited vocabularies in any given language, and because the likelihood of being a non-Spanish speaker is correlated with household wealth, we exclude children with mothers who report they speak a language other than Spanish in Peru (56 percent and 17 percent in rural and urban areas, respectively) and Ecuador (2 percent in both urban and rural areas). 6 The TVIP has been standardized by the test developers on samples ...

The Impact Evaluation Series has been established in recognition of the importance of impact evaluation studies for World Bank operations and for development in general. The series serves as a vehicle for the dissemination of findings of those studies. Papers in this series are part of the Bank's Policy Research Working Paper Series. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.