Studies have found physical inactivity to be a significant health risk factor and have demonstrated how physical inactivity behaviour varies according to social background. As a result, differences according to social background must be considered when examining motives and barriers related to physical activity and sport. This scoping review examines motives and barriers related to physical activity and sport among people with different social backgrounds, including age, socioeconomic status, gender, ethnic minority background and disability status. A systematic literature search was performed in four scientific databases and yielded 2935 articles of which 58 articles met the inclusion criteria. We identified common motives for physical activity and sport as health benefits, well-being, enjoyment, social interaction, and social support; common barriers as time restrictions, fatigue and lack of energy, financial restrictions, health-related restrictions, low motivation, and shortage of facilities. We also identified several motives and barriers that were specific to or more pronounced among people with different social backgrounds. The knowledge about motives and barriers related to physical activity and sport provided in this article can inform health promotion initiatives that seek to improve public health both in general and when specifically targeting groups of people with different social backgrounds.

Non-profit associations are usually democratically organized, and this feature plays a legitimizing role for the public support to associations. This article examines which characteristics at country level, organizational level and individual level can explain variations with regard to member engagement in the association democracy in sports clubs in Europe. The statistical analyses use data on 12,755 members from 642 sports clubs in ten European countries. The findings show that the majority of the members in sports clubs participate in the association democracy, but the level and form of engagement varies considerably.At the country level, no link between the democratic strength and quality of the countries on the one hand and member engagement on the other could be identified. Instead, characteristics at the organizational and individual level were found to be relevant. More concretely, (i) the size of the sports club, (ii) the socioeconomic background of the members (gender, age and education), and (iii) the way in which the members are involved in and affiliated to the club (engaged in voluntary work, participating in social activities, etc.) were found to be significantly correlated with the engagement of members in the association democracy.

Sports clubs are often perceived as important vehicles for social integration, but the empirical evidence to support this claim is limited. This article sets out to identify individual and organisational characteristics that are conducive to social integration of members and volunteers.Drawing on survey data from more than 8,000 members and volunteers in ten European countries, a factor analysis identified three dimensions of social integration. They match the three-fold theoretical distinctions between socio-affective (interaction and identification) and socio-cultural integration made in the article. Multilevel regression analyses examined the effects of individuallevel variables (socio-economic background, affiliation and participation) and organisational-level variables (management and structural characteristics) on the three dimensions of social integration.Emprical analyses revealed that the individual-level variables, especially affiliation and participation (e.g. the number of years connected to the club, the frequency of sports and competition participation, the team/group size and volunteering), had explanatory power, while the organisational-level variables (management and structural characteristics) mainly showed weak correlations. These findings were relatively consistent among the three dimensions of social integration, which indicates that it is mainly the same individual and organisational characteristics that are conducive to social integration in sports clubs.

Policy makers often ascribe sports clubs an important societal role, as they can encourage the integration of people with a migration background. Questions then arise as to the extent that members with a migration background are integrated in sports clubs and what the factors are that play a role in this integration. The data for this research are drawn from a comparative study of 10 European countries. The analyses take a multidimensional approach to social integration and differentiate between the dimensions of understanding/acceptance, interaction, and identification. The results show that members with a migration background are relatively well integrated, but less so than other club members. There is a positive association between social integration and the volunteering, participation in competitions, long-term membership, and sports activities in teams.

Participation in sports clubs is often ascribed with the ability to promote social integration of people with disabilities, since it can provide a platform for creating social networks and friendships. However, integration is not reached automatically, and it is strongly reliant on specific factors and conditions. Therefore, this study compares the degree of social integration of members with and without disabilities and analyses individual and structural factors relevant for social integration of members with disabilities. Social integration is conceptualised as a multidimensional concept and focuses on socio-cultural and socio-affective (interaction, identification) dimensions. Statistical regression analyses were conducted using data from 13,082 members (N=1,482 of that reported at least one disability) in 642 sports clubs in ten European countries. The results show that members with disabilities are integrated to the same extent as members without disabilities, and the degree of social integration seems to be more reliant on individual factors than on structural factors of sports clubs. Affiliation and participation in a club (volunteering, participation in competitive sport, long-term membership, frequency of sports participation, team/group size) are relevant for social integration. Furthermore, the setting matters, as members with disabilities practising in both settings, only with people with disabilities as well as together with members without disabilities, are slightly better integrated regarding the 'interaction'-dimension than those practising in a separate setting only.