Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) are at the center of social–ecological systems that have supported Indigenous peoples around the North Pacific Rim since time immemorial. Through generations of interdependence with salmon, Indigenous Peoples developed sophisticated systems of management involving cultural and spiritual beliefs, and stewardship practices. Colonization radically altered these social–ecological systems, disrupting Indigenous management, consolidating authority within colonial governments, and moving most harvest into mixed-stock fisheries. We review Indigenous management of salmon, including selective fishing technologies, harvest practices, and governance grounded in multigenerational place-based knowledge. These systems and practices showcase pathways for sustained productivity and resilience in contemporary salmon fisheries. Contrasting Indigenous systems with contemporary management, we document vulnerabilities of colonial governance and harvest management that have contributed to declining salmon fisheries in many locations. We suggest that revitalizing traditional systems of salmon management can improve prospects for sustainable fisheries and healthy fishing communities and identify opportunities for their resurgence.

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Current investment in conservation is insufficient to adequately protect and recover all ecosystems and species. The challenge of allocating limited funds is acute for Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. in Canada, which lack a strategic approach to ensure that resources are spent on actions most likely to cost‐effectively recover diminished populations. We applied the Priority Threat Management framework to prioritize strategies most likely to maximize the number of thriving Pacific salmon populations on the Central Coast of British Columbia, Canada. These included 79 genetically, ecologically and spatially distinct population groups called conservation units (CUs) for five salmon species. This region has high salmon biodiversity and spans the territories of four First Nations: the Heiltsuk, Nuxalk, Kitasoo/Xai'xais and Wuikinuxv. Using structured expert elicitation of Indigenous and other experts, we quantified the estimated benefits, costs and feasibility of implementing 10 strategies. Under a business‐as‐usual scenario (i.e. no additional investments in salmon conservation or management), experts predicted that only one in four CUs would have >50% chance of achieving a thriving status within 20 years. Limiting future industrial development in salmon habitats, which was predicted to safeguard CUs from future declines, was identified as the most cost‐effective strategy. Investment in three strategies: (a) removal of artificial barriers to fish migration, (b) watershed protection and (c) stream restoration—at 11.3M CAD per year—was predicted to result in nearly half (34 of 79) of the CUs having a >60% chance of meeting the conservation objective. If all conservation strategies were implemented, experts estimated a >50% probability of achieving a thriving status for 78 of 79 CUs, at an annual cost of 17.3M CAD. However, even with the implementation of all strategies, most sockeye salmon CUs were unlikely to achieve higher probability targets of reaching the objective. Policy implications. We illustrate how Priority Threat Management can incorporate the perspectives and expertise of Indigenous peoples and other experts to prioritize conservation strategies based on their cost, benefit and feasibility. Implementation of this framework can help safeguard and recover Pacific salmon in Canada, and could also be used to prioritize actions for other conservation issues globally.

24 1. Current investment in conservation is insufficient to adequately protect and recover all 25 ecosystems and species. The challenge of allocating limited funds is acute for Pacific 26 salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in Canada, which lack a strategic approach to ensure that 27 resources are spent on actions that would cost-effectively recover diminished 28 populations. 29 2. We applied the Priority Threat Management framework to prioritize strategies that are 30 most likely to maximize the number of thriving Pacific salmon populations on the Central 31 Coast of British Columbia, Canada. These included 79 genetically, ecologically and 32 spatially distinct population groups called Conservation Units (CUs) for five salmon 33 species. This region has high salmon biodiversity and spans the territories of four First 34 Nations: the Heiltsuk, Nuxalk, Kitasoo/Xai'xais and Wuikinuxv. 35 3. Using structured expert elicitation of Indigenous and other experts, we quantified the 36 estimated benefits, costs and feasibility of implementing 10 strategies. Under a business-37 as-usual scenario (i.e., no additional investments in salmon conservation or management), 38 experts predicted that only one in four CUs would have >50% chance of achieving a 39 thriving status within 20 years. Limiting future industrial development, which was 40 predicted to safeguard CUs from future declines, was identified as the most cost-effective 41 3 strategy. Investment in three strategies: 1) removal of artificial barriers to fish migration, 42 2) watershed protection, and 3) stream restoration -at 11.3M CAD per year -was 43 predicted to result in nearly half (34 of 79) of the CUs having a >60% chance of meeting 44 the conservation objective. 45 4. If all conservation strategies were implemented, experts estimated a >50% probability of 46 achieving a thriving status for 78 of 79 CUs, at an annual cost of 17.3M CAD. However, 47 5. Policy implications: We illustrate how Priority Threat Management can incorporate the 50 perspectives and expertise of Indigenous peoples and other experts to evaluate and 51 prioritize conservation strategies based on their cost, benefit and feasibility. Timely 52 investment in the strategies outlined in this assessment could help safeguard and recover 53 Pacific salmon in this region of Canada. 54