We investigated the presence of plasmalemma-bound copper-containing oxidases associated with the inducible iron (Fe) transport system in two diatoms of the genus Thalassiosira. Under Fe-limiting conditions, Thalassiosira oceanica, an oceanic isolate, was able to enzymatically oxidize inorganic Fe(II) extracellularly. This oxidase activity was dependent on copper (Cu) availability and diminished by exposure to a multi-Cu oxidase (MCO) inhibitor. The rates of Fe uptake from ferrioxamine B by Fe-limited T. oceanica were also dependent on Cu availability in the growth media. The effects of Cu limitation on Fe(II) oxidation and Fe uptake from ferrioxamine B were partially reversed after a short exposure to a Cu addition, indicating that the putative oxidases contain Cu. Limited physiological experiments were also performed with the coastal diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana and provided some evidence for putative Cu-containing oxidases in the high-affinity Fe transport system of this isolate. To support these preliminary physiological data, we searched the newly available T. pseudonana genome for a multi-Cu-containing oxidase gene and, using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), quantified its expression under various Fe and Cu levels. We identified a putative MCO gene with predicted transmembrane domains and found that transcription levels of this gene were significantly elevated in Fe-limited cells relative to Fe-replete cells. These data collectively suggest that putative MCOs are part of the inducible Fe transport system of Fe-limited diatoms, which act to oxidize Fe(II) following reductive dissociation of Fe(III) from strong organic complexes.To date, most studies of Cu nutrition in marine phytoplankton have focused on its toxicity. Laboratory and field studies have shown that the concentrations of Cu(II) in some coastal regions are high enough to inhibit the growth of certain phytoplankton taxa (Brand et al. 1986) and to affect the composition of phytoplankton assemblages (Sunda et al. 1981;Moffett et al. 1997). In turn, phytoplankton are known to influence the speciation of dissolved Cu in seawater by releasing strong Cu organic ligands in response to Cu toxicity (Moffett and Brand 1996;Croot et al. 2000;Vasconcelos and Leal 2001).Less is known about the essentiality of Cu to marine phytoplankton. It has been established that Cu, a redoxactive transition metal, acts as a cofactor in enzymes that scavenge reactive oxygen species and catalyze other redox reactions, and is therefore vital for growth. Thus far, Cu has been shown to be involved in the detoxification of superoxide radicals (i.e., Cu-containing superoxide dismutases) (Chadd et al. 1996), the breakdown of organic N sources (Palenik et al. 1988(Palenik et al. , 1989, and the electron transport chain reactions of photosynthesis (i.e., plastocyanin) (Sandmann et al. 1983) and respiration (cytochrome oxidase) (Stryer 1988).One of the most intriguing findings about Cu nutrition in microorganisms over the past decade has been the identification of...

Key Points• The core autophagy protein ATG4B is highly expressed in CML stem/progenitor cells and may be useful in predicting treatment response.• ATG4B knockdown reduces autophagy, impairs the survival of CML stem/progenitor cells, and sensitizes them to IM treatment.Previous studies demonstrated that imatinib mesylate (IM) induces autophagy in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and that this process is critical to cell survival upon therapy. However, it is not known if the autophagic process differs at basal levels between CML patients and healthy individuals and if pretreatment CML cells harbor unique autophagy characteristics that could predict patients' clinical outcomes. We now demonstrate that several key autophagy genes are differentially expressed in CD34 1 hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, with the highest transcript levels detected for ATG4B, and that the transcript and protein expression levels of ATG4 family members, ATG5 and BECLIN-1 are significantly increased in CD34 1 cells from chronicphase CML patients (P < .05). Importantly, ATG4B is differentially expressed in pretreatment CML stem/progenitor cells from subsequent IM responders vs IM nonresponders (P < .05). Knockdown of ATG4B suppresses autophagy, impairs the survival of CML stem/progenitor cells and sensitizes them to IM treatment. Moreover, deregulated expression of ATG4B in CD34 1 CML cells inversely correlates with transcript levels of miR-34a, and ATG4B is shown to be a direct target of miR-34a. This study identifies ATG4B as a potential biomarker for predicting therapeutic response in treatment-naïve CML stem/progenitor cells and uncovers ATG4B as a possible drug target in these cells. (Blood. 2014;123(23):3622-3634)

B lymphocytes spread and extend membrane processes when searching for antigens and form immune synapses upon contacting cells that display antigens on their surface. Although these dynamic morphological changes facilitate B cell activation, the signaling pathways underlying these processes are not fully understood. We found that activation of the Rap GTPases was essential for these changes in B cell morphology. Rap activation was important for B cell receptor (BCR)- and lymphocyte-function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1)-induced spreading, for BCR-induced immune-synapse formation, and for particulate BCR ligands to induce localized F-actin assembly and membrane-process extension. Rap activation and F-actin assembly were also required for optimal BCR signaling in response to particulate antigens but not soluble antigens. Thus by controlling B cell morphology and cytoskeletal organization, Rap might play a key role in the activation of B cells by particulate and cell-associated antigens.

Signaling by the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) activates the Rap1 and Rap2 GTPases, putative antagonists of Ras-mediated signaling. Because Ras can activate the Raf-1/ERK pathway and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway, we asked whether Rap activation limits the ability of the BCR to signal via these pathways. To do this, we blocked the activation of endogenous Rap1 and Rap2 by expressing the Rap-specific GTPase-activating protein RapGAPII. Preventing Rap activation had no effect on BCR-induced activation of ERK. In contrast, BCR-induced phosphorylation of Akt on critical activating sites was increased 2-to 3-fold when Rap activation was blocked. Preventing Rap activation also increased the ability of the BCR to stimulate Akt-dependent phosphorylation of the FKHR transcription factor on negative regulatory sites and decreased the levels of p27 Kip1 , a pro-apoptotic factor whose transcription is enhanced by FKHR. Moreover, preventing Rap activation reduced BCR-induced cell death in the WEHI-231 B cell line. Thus activation of endogenous Rap by the BCR limits BCR-induced activation of the PI3K/ Akt pathway, opposes the subsequent inhibition of the FKHR/p27Kip1 pro-apoptotic module, and enhances BCR-induced cell death. Consistent with the idea that Rap-GTP is a negative regulator of the PI3K/Akt pathway, expressing constitutively active Rap2 (Rap2V12) reduced BCR-induced phosphorylation of Akt and FKHR. Finally, our finding that Rap2V12 can bind PI3K and inhibit its activity in a manner that depends upon BCR engagement provides a potential mechanism by which Rap-GTP limits activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, a central regulator of B cell growth and survival.Signaling by the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) 1 is required for B cell development and survival, for the elimination or silencing of self-reactive B cells, and for the activation of B cells that recognize foreign antigens (1). The BCR activates multiple signaling pathways, including the phospholipase C pathway, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway, and the kinase cascades that lead to activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) (1-3). Downstream targets of the phospholipase C pathway include protein kinase C (PKC) enzymes as well as the NF-AT and NF-B transcription factors (4). PI3K produces lipid second messengers that regulate a network of protein kinases, including 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1, PKC-, PKC-⑀, p70 S6 kinase, the Btk tyrosine kinase (1, 5), and Akt/protein kinase B, a kinase that plays a key role in B cell survival (6). The three major classes of MAPKs, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun Nterminal kinase (JNK), and p38 MAPK, phosphorylate a variety of transcription factors, increasing their ability to promote transcription. The activation of distinct combinations of these signaling pathways may account for the ability of the BCR to promote survival, apoptosis, proliferation, or differentiation depending on the maturation state of the B cell and the nature of the antigen (2)...

B-cell lymphomas are common malignancies in which transformed B cells enter the circulation, extravasate into tissues and form tumors in multiple organs. Lymphoma cells are thought to exit the vasculature and enter tissues through the same chemokine-and adhesion moleculedependent mechanisms as normal B cells. We have previously shown that activation of the Rap GTPases, proteins that control cytoskeletal organization and integrin activation, is critical for chemokine-induced migration and adhesion in B-lymphoma cell lines. Using the A20 murine B-lymphoma cell line as a model, we now show that Rap activation is important for circulating lymphoma cells to enter tissues and form tumors in vivo. In vitro assays showed that Rap activation is required for A20 cells to efficiently adhere to vascular endothelial cells and undergo transendothelial migration. These findings suggest that Rap or its effectors could be novel targets for treating B-cell lymphomas.