Recent investigations concerning ways people employ prayer typically suffer from either a fundamentally atheoretical approach or an indiscriminant mixing of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components. The present study examines the theory that a general concept of prayer-as-connection contains prayers of inward (connection with oneself), outward (human-human connection), or upward (human-divine connection) foci. Participants rated words or phrases according to what they "thought about" while praying. Factor analysis revealed eight primary factors: two inward, four outward, and two upward. Three second-order factors emerged (two outward and one upward). However, no general factor appeared.

This study provides support for a model that conceptualizes prayers as the means to establish cognitive connections in three directions: inward (self-connection); outward (human-human connection); and upward (human-divine connections). A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrates a single general prayer factor divisible into three subfactors that are in turn comprised of eight discrete scales. Measures of general religiosity, the need for structure, religious styles of coping, well-being, life-satisfaction, and belief in the paranormal provide evidence of convergent and divergent validity for the theory of prayer as a mechanism for inward, outward, and upward connections.Early in the history of modern psychology the study of prayer was a thriving concern (Pratt 1908;Strong 1909). In subsequent years, however, investigations of prayer dropped off quickly, following the general trend of declining interest in the relation between psychology and religious beliefs (Spilka and McIntosh 1999). During the last several years, researchers using newer methods have revisited the topic (Hood, Morris, and Harvey 1993;Ladd and Spilka 2002;Laird et al. 2001;Poloma and Gallup 1991). Ladd and Spilka (2002) summarized previous efforts to construct multidimensional prayer scales and noted several difficulties while attempting to reconcile the various studies. These problems included the presence of different participant instructions, nonstandard methods of response, and an indiscriminate mixture of items (affective, behavioral, and cognitive). Most damaging, however, was the lack of a theoretical paradigm for understanding the role of prayer in religion. Building on Foster's writings (1992), Ladd and Spilka (2002) sought to rectify this situation by proposing an explicit theoretical basis for understanding prayer as a means of forming cognitive connections. Following this pathway, they demonstrated that prayers contain inward, outward, and upward dimensions as postulated by Foster (1992; see Figure 1). Inward prayers emphasize self-examination. Outward prayers focus on strengthening human-human connections. Upward prayers center on the human-divine relationship. Eight first-order factors reflected this tripartite notion of the directions in which prayer can provide connectivity.In addition to the directionality of prayer inherent in the first-order factors, Ladd and Spilka (2002) also reported three second-order factors that appear to represent the intentionality of prayer. Higher order factor one consists of content emphasizing intercession (outward: prayer on behalf of someone's difficulties), suffering (outward: prayer to share another's pain), and examination (inward: prayer to evaluate one's spiritual status). In broad terms, this seems to represent a way of connecting that highlights internal conditions of others and one's self. Engaging in intercessory prayer necessitates recognition of another's inner struggle, even as examination prayer evaluates one's own private situation. Perhaps even more intense is the prayer of suffe...

Based on theorization on the four basic dimensions of religiousness, Believing, Bonding, Behaving, and Belonging, and corresponding cognitive, emotional, moral, and social motives and functions of religion, we developed a measure and investigated cross-cultural consistency of the four dimensions as well interindividual and cross-cultural variability. Data were collected from 14 countries varying in religious heritage: Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodox Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism/Taoism ( N = 3,218). Beyond their high interrelation and common personality correlates, that is, agreeableness and conscientiousness, the four dimensions were distinct across cultures and religions, less interrelated in Eastern Asia compared to the West, differentially preferred across cultural zones, and characterized by distinct features. Believing and bonding, to which spirituality was primarily related, were preferred in Western secular societies. Behaving and belonging, valued in religious societies, were importantly related to fundamentalism, authoritarianism, and low openness. Bonding and behaving were primordial in, respectively, Israel and Turkey. Furthermore, belonging (marked by extraversion) and bonding were uniquely associated with increased life satisfaction, whereas believing was uniquely related to existential quest and decreased life satisfaction. Thus, the multidimensionality of religiousness seems deeply rooted in distinct psychological dispositions evident at both the individual and the cultural levels.

predicting lower levels of depression at the follow-up were preoperative use of prayer for coping, optimism, and hope. Predicting lower levels of anxiety at the follow-up were subjective religiousness, marital status, and hope. Predicting poorer adjustment were reverence in religious contexts, preoperative mental health symptoms, and medical comorbidity. Including optimism and hope in the model did not eliminate effects of religious factors. Several other religious factors had no long-term influences. MPLICATIONS: the influence of religious factors on the long-term postoperative adjustment is independent and complex, with mediating factors yet to be determined. Future research should investigate mechanisms underlying religion-health relations.