Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is a b y-product of palm oil refining that contains valuab le b ioactive compounds such as phytosterols, tocopherol, tocotrienols, and squalene which acummulates in unsaponifiab le fraction (USF). In emulsion form, USF will b e convenien t and easy to use as food supplements or fortificants. Microemulsion is a type of emulsion that has stab le droplet sizes of less than 10 m. Hence, the b est emulsifier for USF microemulsion is important to b e determined. The USF microemulsion was prepared b y homogenizing the sample mixtures at 12.000 rpm for 20 min at USF concentration of 10% (w/v) with lecithin and tween 80 as the emulsifiers at concentratiosn of 0.5 , 1.0, and 1.5% (w/v). The microemulsions were analyzed for their viscosity, stab ility, and particle size distrib utions, as well as microstructures. The results showed that characteristics of microemulsion were affected b y emulsifier types and concentrations. Tween 80 produced b etter microemulsion than lecithin as indicated by more stab le emulsions, smaller droplet sizes, and narrower ranges of droplet size distrib utions. Increasing lectihin concentrations resulted in a narrower droplet size distrib ution b ut the average droplet size was not always smaller. Conversely, increasing tween 80 concentrations increased the average droplet sizes and ranges of particle size distrib utions. The most suitab le emulsifier for USF microemulsion was tween 80 at concentration of 0.5%. This microemulsion contained b ioactive compounds derived from USF, namely vitamin E (mainly tocotrienols), phytosterols, and squalene.

This research studied the optimization conditions for separation and purification of omega-3 (-3) fatty acids from the by-product of tuna canning processing by urea crystallization. Crystallization reaction conditions of urea inclusion (urea to fatty acid ratio (X 1 ) and crystallization time (X 2 )) were optimized using the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and a model was developed. Optimization results showed a quadratic polynomial regression equation of Y = 24.44X 1 + 5.65X 2 -8.71X 1 2 -0.19X 2 2 + 1.171X 1 X 2 -12.95. The maximum response was obtained at an urea to fatty acid ratio of 2.99:1 and a crystallization time of 23.64 h and predicted response of 90.44%. Analysis of variance showed that the urea to fatty acid ratio and crystallization time affected the response. Verification under optimal conditions showed that the purity of -3 fatty acids was 89.64% and the enrichment was 2.85 fold. Verification result revealed that the predicted value from this model was reasonably close to the experimentally observed value. The urea crystallization process changed oil quality parameters including oxidation level (peroxide, anisidin, and totox values), Fe, Cu and P concentrations and moisture content and this were mostly due to the saponification process before urea crystallization.

This research studied the characteristics of Palm Fatty Acids Distillates (PFADs) from several palm oil refineries. It was aimed to know the potency of PFAD as bioactive compounds source, including vitamin E (mainly tocotrienols), phytosterols, squalene and possibly co-enzyme Q10 and polycosanol. Sampling was conducted at 6 palm oil refineries. The results showed that PFAD was dominated by free fatty acids of 85-95% with low oxidation level indicated by peroxide value of 1-10 meq/kg and anisidin value of 6-31. Bioactive compounds found were vitamin E 60-200 ppm, phytosterols 400-7500 ppm and squalene 400-2800 ppm, meanwhile polycosanol and coenzyme Q10 were not found. Vitamin E was dominated by tocotrienols and γ tocotrienol was the major vitamin E, followed by α and δ tocotrienols. Phytosterols in PFADs from several palm oil refineries had variety in quantity and composition. Generally it was dominated by β sitosterol, followed by stigmasterol and campesterol

Crude palm oil (CPO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) are rich sources of bioactive compounds. PFAD is a by-product of palm oil refinery that produce palm frying oil. Physical refining of palm oil by deodorization produces palm fatty acid distillate. CPO and PFAD contain some bioactive compounds such as vitamin E (tocopherol and tocotrienols), phytosterol, and squalene. Bioactive compounds of CPO and PFAD are vitamin E, phytosterols, and squalene. Vitamin E of CPO and PFAD mainly comprised of tocotrienols and the remaining is tocopherol. Phytosterols of CPO and PFAD contained beta sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol. Tocotrienols and phytosterols of CPO and PFAD, each can be separated to produce tocotrienol rich fraction and phytosterol rich fraction. Tocotrienol rich fraction from PFAD has both antioxidant and cholesterol lowering properties. Bioactive compounds of PFAD silmultaneously have been proven to improve lipid profile, and have hepatoprotector effect, imunomodulator, antioxidant properties, and lactogenic effect in animal test experiment. It is possible to develop separation of bioactive compounds of CPO and PFAD integratively with the other process that utilizes fatty acid.

Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) is a by-product of the palm oil industry which has many potential bioactive compounds such as vitamin E, phytosterols and squalene. To obtain multi-component bioactive compounds, saponification and extraction processes are required. The purpose of this study was to identify a review of the comparison of several methods that are more optimal in separating the Squalene-Rich Fraction from Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD). The study uses the systematic literature review method, where the review will study and compare several journal descriptions regarding comparisons in managing the optimal separation of the squalene fraction from the three types of methods offered, namely the method using solvents, the method using high pressure supercritical fluid extraction and the isolation of squalene method using Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. This review presents a descriptive analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the three methods. The study compared three methods for separating the squalene-rich fraction. The review suggests that the safest method to use is separation with low temperature solvents or the so-called low temperature solvent crystallization. Reviews show that this method will not destroy bioactive compounds which are easily oxidized, be easy to apply, require low production cost and capable of producing high purity squalene-rich fractions.