Caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) is a member of the genus lentivirus causing caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE), a chronic inflammatory condition affecting the lungs, joints, udder and central nervous system of small ruminants such as sheep and goats. CAE is distributed worldwide and is recognised as a significant cause of morbidity and decreased milk production in dairy goats. Earlier studies highlighted the clinicopathological features and supplied preliminary serological evidence for the existence of CAE among selected goat herds in Malaysia. Therefore, this study aims to provide further insights into the seroprevalence and contributing factors of CAE among sheep and goat herds in two states of Peninsular Malaysia. The blood samples and biodata were randomly collected from a total of 262 individual sheep (40) and goat (222) in seven smallholder farms. Blood sera were tested for specific anti-CAEV antibodies using Qayee-Bio CAEV sandwich-ELISA test kits according to standard procedures. Our results of the study revealed 21.4% (95% CI: 15.8–28.6) apparent and 20.6% (95% CI: 14.5–27.8) true seroprevalence with significant differences (p < 0.05) in seroconversion rates between the states, farms, production systems and breeds of small ruminants. The prevalence of CAE in the Malaysian Peninsular is a potential threat to the small ruminant industry and developing agricultural economy. Further studies are required to determine the genetic characteristics, distribution and risk factors of CAEV for effective prevention and control in Malaysia.

In the tropical region of Malaysia (the study area), the climate has a mean annual temperature of 25.4°C with the hottest months of the year being April, May and June. On an average, December is 83.0% the most humid (MMD, 2017). It was confirmed by Cunha et al. (2008); that dairy cows raised in tropical conditions had less milk production as the somatic cell count (SCC) increased in mastitis cases. In humid tropics, Insua et al. (2008) also reported mastitis prevalence of about 42.0 %. The reduction in milk production due to cases of clinical mastitis is the component with the largest weight (42.2%) in the total economic impact of mastitis due to the large percentage of cows with SCCs. Therefore, the intensification of dairying, especially under tropical conditions, presents disease problems with mastitis as an important occurrence. And dairy farmers in the study area have reported cases of reduced dairy production and evidence of mastitis in dairy cows. This paper aims to provide an understanding of the effect developed killed vaccine on IgG, IgM, IgA, interleukin-10, interleukin-12, haptoglobin and serum amyloid A concentration on vaccinated and challenged dairy cows raised under tropic condition. Six lactating dairy cows were grouped into 3 treatment groups. Group A and B were inoculated intramuscularly with 2ml of normal saline while Group C received 108 CFU/ml of the killed bacteria followed by a booster. The cows in group B and C were inoculated with 2ml of 106 CFU live S. aureus bacterin in each mammary gland quarter while treatment group A was inoculated with 2ml of normal saline a week post booster. Blood samples were periodically collected. There was significant difference in the rectal temperatures, heart, and respiratory rates among the treatment groups. Results of the current study however, revealed that antibodies titres of immunoglobulin M, G and A were significantly (p<0.05) elevated throughout the post-primary vaccination, post-booster vaccination and post challenge phases. In addition, there were significant differences (p<0.05) in the interleukin-10, interleukin-12, haptoglobin and serum amyloid A concentration at different phases between treatment groups. In conclusion, this study revealed that the prototype killed S. aureus vaccine could induce significant clinical and humoral immune responses needed for improving dairy production in tropical climates such as that of Malaysia. This was deduced from the reaction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and acute phase proteins biomarkers.

Staphylococcus aureus is the most important human and animal pathogen responsible for a wide spectrum of morbidity and acute clinical infections, in addition to tenacious chronic forms of diseases. The pathogen sophisticated virulence, and its abilities to abate or elude the host immune responses by the myriad of processes makes it the most dreaded organisms, both in the communities, hospital setups and the dairy industries worldwide. S. aureus vaccines have revealed a significant challenge because of plentiful virulence physiognomies. For these reasons, numerous protein particles and several potent transporters of these proteins called adjuvants were proposed as ideal vaccines contrivances for the prevention of Staphylococcus aureus infections. Furthermore, for the formulation of these vaccine contraptions nascent technologies which include the Bioinformatics, Proteomics, Metagenomics, Metabolomics, Transcriptomics and Nanotechnology and its ability in the deliverance of vaccines in research are similarly advocated, an intact procedure employed for the evaluation of the vast proteins and genes that were disclosed by a microorganism is currently available. Likewise, existing are marvellous expectation in these burgeoning expertise in understanding the microbial and host affiliations. In view of this, the blossoming facts may perhaps tremendously assure to the headway of immunogenic vaccines as anti-Staphylococcus aureus contagions in both hominids and animals. This periodical highlights and explicates on the up-to-date eminence of mucosal and systemic immune responses by the application of Transcriptomics, Metabolomics, Metagenomics, Proteomics and Nanotechnology techniques for their prominence in the evaluation of refined proteins for use as systemic and mucosal immunogenic vaccines for forefending of Staphylococcus aureus contagions in goats, sheep and cattle.