Grid-independent rate of spread results from a physics-based simulation are presented. Previously, such a numerical benchmark has been elusive owing to computational restrictions. The grid-converged results are used to systematically construct correlations between the rate of spread (RoS) and both wind speed and grass height, separately. The RoS obtained from the physics-based model is found to be linear with wind speed in the parameter range considered. When wind speed is varied, the physics-based model predicts faster RoS than the Mk III and V (McArthur) models (Noble et al. 1980) but slower than the CSIRO model (Cheney et al. 1998). When the grass height is varied keeping the bulk density constant, the fire front changes from a boundary layer flame mode to plume flame mode as the grass height increases. Once the fires are in plume mode, a higher grass height results in a larger heat release rate of the fire but a slower RoS.

Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) are a proven technology for energy storage systems, mobile electronics, power tools, aerospace, automotive and maritime applications. LiBs have attracted interest from academia and industry ‎due to their high power and energy densities compared to other battery technologies. Despite the extensive usage of LiBs, there is a substantial fire risk associated ‎with their use which is a concern, especially when utilised in electric vehicles, aeroplanes, and submarines. ‎This review presents LiB hazards, techniques for mitigating risks, the suppression of LiB fires and identification of shortcomings for future improvement. Water is identified as an efficient cooling and suppressing agent and water mist is considered the most promising technique to extinguish LiB fires. In the initial stages, the present review covers some relevant information regarding the material constitution and configuration of the cell assemblies, and phenomenological evolution of the thermal runaway reactions, which in turn can potentially lead to flaming combustion of cells and battery assemblies. This is followed by short descriptions of various active fire control agents to suppress fires involving LiBs in general, and water as a superior extinguishing medium in particular. In the latter parts of the review, the phenomena associated with water mist suppression of LiB fires are comprehensively reviewed.

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Results from an experimental program undertaken to study the effect of fuel quantity and location on ethanol pool fires in the open and in a small enclosure (an ISO 9705 room) are compared with simulations using the Fire Dynamics Simulator version 4.03 (FDS4). The fuel in trays is placed at three locations (front, back, and center) within the room enclosure as well as directly under the calorimeter hood. The measured heat release rate (HRR) is found to vary substantially when a fuel package consisting of different quantities of ethanol is placed at different locations within the room. Instead of prescribing this HRR into the FDS simulation, these experimental results are compared with HRR predictions obtained using the FDS4 combustion model. The comparison reveals that there are significant and variable differences between the experimental results and the FDS4 predictions in contrast to simulations where the HRR is prescribed.KEY WORDS: burning rate, heat release rate, pool fire, ISO 9705 room, fuel location, grid size.