Soil is an important reservoir for Listeria monocytogenes, a foodborne pathogen implicated in numerous produce-related outbreaks. Our objectives were to (i) compare the survival of L. monocytogenes among three soils, (ii) compare the native bacterial communities across these soils, and (iii) investigate relationships between L. monocytogenes survival, native bacterial communities, and soil properties. Listeria spp. populations were monitored on PALCAM agar in three soils inoculated with L. monocytogenes (∼5 × 10 CFU/g): conventionally farmed (CS), grassland transitioning to conventionally farmed (TS), and uncultivated grassland (GS). Bacterial diversity of the soils was analyzed using 16S rRNA targeted amplicon sequencing. A 2 log reduction of Listeria spp. was observed in all soils within 10 days, but at a significantly lower rate in GS (Fisher's least significant difference test; p < 0.05). Survival correlated with increased moisture and a neutral pH. GS showed the highest microbial diversity. Acidobacteria was the dominant phylum differentiating CS and TS from GS, and was negatively correlated with pH, carbon, nitrogen, and moisture. High moisture content and neutral pH are likely to increase the ability of L. monocytogenes to persist in soil. This study confirmed that native bacterial communities and short-term survival of L. monocytogenes varies across soils.

Forest restoration has been proposed as a scalable nature-based solution to achieve global environmental and socio-economic outcomes and is central to many policy initiatives, such as the Bonn Challenge. Restored forests contain appreciable biodiversity, improve habitat connectivity and sequester carbon. Incentive mechanisms (e.g. payments for ecosystem services and allocation of management rights) have been a focus of forest restoration efforts for decades. Yet, there is still little understanding of their role in promoting restoration success. We conducted a systematic literature review to investigate how incentive mechanisms are used to promote forest restoration, outcomes, and the biophysical and socio-economic factors that influence implementation and program success. We found that socio-economic factors, such as governance, monitoring systems and the experience and beliefs of participants, dominate whether or not an incentive mechanism is successful. We found that approximately half of the studies report both positive ecological and socio-economic outcomes. However, reported adverse outcomes were more commonly socio-economic than ecological. Our results reveal that achieving forest restoration at a sufficient scale to meet international commitments will require stronger assessment and management of socio-economic factors that enable or constrain the success of incentive mechanisms. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Understanding forest landscape restoration: reinforcing scientific foundations for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration’.

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