The antimicrobial peptide (AMP) pleurocidin has a broad antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria by perturbation and permeabilizing their membranes; however, understanding the mechanism of action of pleurocidin, a promising AMP for replacing current antibiotic agents, has tremendous importance for future applications. Hence, we applied all-atom (AA) and coarse-grained (CG) molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to provide molecular-level insights into the pore-forming process. The early stages of pore formation were examined by 500 ns AA simulations. The results demonstrated that pleurocidin has the ability to create a pore with two peptides through which water molecules can flow. However, the results of the 25 μs CG simulations indicate that the final pore will be created by accumulation of more than two peptides. The results show that after 2.5 μs of simulations, peptides will aggregate and create a channel-like pore across the membrane. Pleurocidin can construct a more efficient and stable pore in the anionic membranes than in the zwitterionic membranes. Moreover, the structure amphipathicity, polarity, and basic residues play crucial roles in the pore formation and flow of water molecules across the lipid bilayers. In general, the findings revealed that based on the lipid compositions of the membranes, pleurocidin could act by forming either toroidal or disordered toroidal pores with different peptide arrangements.

Vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) are essential components of synaptic transmission in the brain. Synaptic vesicles' luminal chloride and low pH regulate VGLUTs allosterically in a cooperative way. The luminal allosteric regulation of VGLUTs by chloride (Cl−) and proton (H+) is possible through the collective work of luminal Cl− and H+ binding site residues. However, precise atomistic details about the luminal Cl− binding to the luminal Cl− binding site and the role of allosteric activation by H+ in VGLUTs are unknown. Using all‐atom molecular dynamics simulations, this study demonstrates the critical role of Cl− binding site residues, details about Cl− binding to the luminal Cl− binding site, and the role of allosteric regulation of VGLUT2 by H+ at an atomistic level. By point mutations, we found out that Arginine (R184), Histidine (H128), and Glutamate (E191) are critical residues in the allosteric regulation of VGLUT2, R184 is the luminal Cl− binding site residue, and H128 and R88 support Cl− binding to R184. Furthermore, we found out that the protonation of H128 and E191 is important in Cl− binding to the luminal Cl− binding site. Furthermore, we investigated the essential interactions between Cl− and H+ binding site residues. Our results can give atomistic evidence for a previous experimental hypothesis about the VGLUTs luminal allosteric regulation by H+ and Cl−.