To perceive the location of touch in space, we integrate information about skin-location with information about the location of that body part in space. Most research investigating this process of tactile spatial remapping has used the so-called crossed-hands deficit, in which the ability to judge the temporal order of touches on the two hands is impaired when the arms are crossed. This posture induces a conflict between skin-based and tactile external spatial representations, specifically in the left-right dimension. Thus, it is unknown whether touch is affected by posture when spatial relations other than the right-left dimension are available. Here, we tested the extent to which the crossed-hands deficit is a measure of tactile remapping, reflecting tactile encoding in continuous three-dimensional space. Participants judged the temporal order of tactile stimuli presented to crossed and uncrossed hands. The arms were placed at different elevations (up-down dimension; Experiments 1 and 2), or at different distances from the body in the depth plane (nearfar dimension; Experiment 3). The crossed-hands deficit was reduced when other sources of spatial information, orthogonal to the left-right dimension, were available. Nonetheless, the deficit persisted in all conditions, even when processing of non-conflicting information was enough to solve the task. Together, these results demonstrate that the processing underlying the crossed-hands deficit is related to the encoding of tactile localization in three-dimensional space, rather than related uniquely to the cost of processing information in the right-left dimension. Furthermore, the persistence of the crossing effect provides evidence for automatic integration of all available information, regardless of whether or not it is conflicting.3

Childhood and adolescence coincide with rapid structural and functional maturation of brain networks implicated in Theory of Mind (ToM); however, the impact of paediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) on the development of these higher order skills is not well understood. ToM can be partitioned into conative ToM, defined as the ability to understand how indirect speech acts involving irony and empathy are used to influence the mental or affective state of the listener; and affective ToM, concerned with understanding that facial expressions are often used for social purposes to convey emotions that we want people to think we feel. In a sample of 84 children with mild-severe TBI and 40 typically developing controls, this study examined the effect of paediatric TBI on affective and conative ToM; and evaluated the respective contributions of injury-related factors (injury severity/lesion location) and non-injury-related environmental variables (socio-economic status (SES)/family functioning) to long-term ToM outcomes. Results showed that the poorest ToM outcomes were documented in association with mild-complicated and moderate TBI, rather than severe TBI. Lesion location and SES did not significantly contribute to conative or affective ToM. Post-injury family affective responsiveness was the strongest and most significant predictor of conative ToM. Results suggest that clinicians should exercise caution when prognosticating based on early clinical indicators, and that group and individual-level outcome prediction should incorporate assessment of a range of injury- and non-injury-related factors. Moreover, the affective quality of post-injury family interactions represents a potentially modifiable risk factor, and might be a useful target for family-centred interventions designed to optimise social cognitive outcomes after paediatric TBI.