The purpose was to examine the effects of three different demonstrations by a model on acquisition and retention of a sequential gross movement task. The second purpose was to examine the relationship between reversal processing of visual information about skills and coding of skill information. Thirty undergraduates (15 men and 15 women) were assigned into one of three conditions, Objective condition which demonstrated the task with the model facing the subject. Looking-glass condition in which the skill was demonstrated with the model facing the subject who viewed the performance opposite the right and left directions in executing the task, and the Subjective condition in which the subject observed the model from the rear. Number of immediate recall tests required to accomplish the sequential movements completely and the sum of the performance points for reproduced movements at each delayed recall test (1 day, 7 days, and 5 mo. after the immediate recall test) were employed. Analysis indicated the Subjective condition produced a significantly greater modeling effect in immediate recall of the movements than the Looking-glass condition. Retention of the acquired skills was almost equal under the three conditions.

The goal was to examine the differences in visual search strategies between expert and nonexpert baseball batters during the preparatory phase of a pitcher's pitching and accuracy and timing of swing judgments during the ball's trajectory. 14 members of a college team (Expert group), and graduate and college students (Nonexpert group), were asked to observe 10 pitches thrown by a pitcher and respond by pushing a button attached to a bat when they thought the bat should be swung to meet the ball (swing judgment). Their eye movements, accuracy, and the timing of the swing judgment were measured. The Expert group shifted their point of observation from the proximal part of the body such as the head, chest, or trunk of the pitcher to the pitching arm and the release point before the pitcher released a ball, while the gaze point of the Nonexpert group visually focused on the head and the face. The accuracy in swing judgments of the Expert group was significantly higher, and the timing of their swing judgments was significantly earlier. Expert baseball batters used visual search strategies to gaze at specific cues (the pitching arm of the pitcher) and were more accurate and relatively quicker at decision making than Nonexpert batters.

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The main aim of the present study was to examine how a goalkeeper's response-initiation time influences the accuracy of the response to a soccer penalty kick. The participants were 24 university male students in two groups: 12 experienced soccer goalkeepers, and 12 experienced soccer field players. They were required to watch videos made by three different kickers preparing a penalty kick, then 12 ensuing moments, occluded 467 msec. before impact of the kicker's foot with the ball to 267 msec. after impact. There were three different kicks (instep, front of foot, inside of foot) directed at three different possible positions within the goal (left, right, center). As a response, participants were required to move their body to intercept the oncoming ball. Results showed that neither the goalkeepers' group nor the field players' group could use the advance visual cues to anticipate the direction of the ball when they initiated a response before the moment of impact during the penalty kick, but all groups were successful when the response was initiated after impact. The goalkeepers' group had a significantly faster response-initiation time than the field players' group. It was inferred that the goalkeepers were more likely to adopt a strategy of relying on situational probabilities in situations where the speed of response is critical.

This study examined sport achievement orientation within the japanese sport setting. 1,836 male and 425 female athletes (M age = 18.6 yr.) from 47 sports completed the Japanese version of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (24 items), and 1,781 males and 421 females (M age = 18.6 yr.) from 47 sports completed that of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (14 items). While the original English versions of the questionnaires are composed of three and two factors, respectively, present exploratory factor analyses identified four factors in the Sport Orientation Questionnaire and three in the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire. In this study, two types of the SOQ Competitiveness and the TEOSQ Ego Orientation emerged even though the original versions included only one type. A one-way analysis of variance indicated that sex differences were significant for all subscales. Sex differences in the Sport Orientation Questionnaire of Japanese resembled those of Americans. The overall factor reliability and validity based on the sample suggested that the modified Japanese versions of the two questionnaires can be valuable in the investigation of sport achievement orientation in Japanese sport and exercise settings.