The presence of these abnormalities from an early age contributes to the specific cognitive and developmental deficits seen in children with DS.

Hippocampal sclerosis (HS) is considered one of the major pathogenic factors of drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy. HS is characterized by selective loss of pyramidal neurons - especially of sectors CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus - pathological proliferation of interneuron networks, and severe glia reaction. These changes occur in the course of long-term and complex epileptogenesis. The authors, on the basis of a review of the literature and own experience, present the pathomechanisms leading to hippocampal sclerosis and epileptogenesis, including various morphological and functional elements of this structure of the brain and pharmacological possibilities of preventing these processes.

No abstract

Down syndrome (DS), or trisomy 21, is one of the most common autosomal mutations. The overexpression of the β-amyloid precursor protein gene, located on chromosome 21, causes an increased production of the specific amyloid. The current study is a continuation of our earlier investigations relating to the profile of metabolic changes in the frontal lobes of DS patients as assessed by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H MRS). The aims of the study were the morphological assessment of the brain using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and the evaluation of metabolic disorders of the temporal lobes using (1)H MRS in DS children. The study group included 20 children with DS aged 3-15 years and treated in the Department of Pediatric Neurology and Rehabilitation, Medical University of Białystok. The control group included healthy children (n = 20). MRI scans of the heads of DS children were performed using a 1.5 T MR scanner under standard conditions. (1)H MRS investigations were also carried out to assess metabolic changes in the temporal lobes. Metabolites, such as N-acetylaspartate (NAA), glutamate-glutamine complex (Glx), choline (Cho), myoinositol (mI) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), were determined in both temporal lobes with reference to the internal marker creatine (Cr). Results were compared with the control group.We found a statistically significant decrease in NAA/Cr, Cho/Cr, mI/Cr and GABA/Cr ratios. The Glx/Cr ratio in both temporal lobes of DS patients did not differ from the control group. Our results indicate metabolic neurotransmitter disorders in the central nervous system in children with DS.

Studies have shown fluctuations of cytokine levels in patients with migraine headaches; however, further studies are needed to verify these results. Our previous studies suggest increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1alpha, sTNF-RI and TNF-alpha, in children with migraine headaches. In this study, we analyzed anti-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-10 (IL-10) and interleukin-13 (IL-13) in plasma from children and adolescents with migraine and tension-type headaches during the interictal period. The study group consisted of 35 children and adolescents between 8-18 years old, suffering from migraine headaches with or without aura. The control group consisted of 33 patients suffering from episodic tension-type headaches. IL-4 was detected in 17.1% of patients with migraine headaches and in 28.6% of patients with tension-type headaches. IL-13 was detected in 17.1% of patients with migraine headaches and in 15.2% of patients with tension-type headaches. IL-10 was only detected in 3 of 68 (4.4%) patients. Any significant correlations between measurable cytokine levels and age, gender, aura, duration of disease, frequency and severity of headaches were determined. Any significant fluctuations of selected anti-inflammatory cytokines during the headache-free period in children with migraine and tension-type headaches have been found, immune dysfunction in migraineurs could not be excluded.