Very large-scale motions in the form of long regions of streamwise velocity fluctuation are observed in the outer layer of fully developed turbulent pipe flow over a range of Reynolds numbers. The premultiplied, one-dimensional spectrum of the streamwise velocity measured by hot-film anemometry has a bimodal distribution whose components are associated with large-scale motion and a range of smaller scales corresponding to the main turbulent motion. The characteristic wavelength of the large-scale mode increases through the logarithmic layer, and reaches a maximum value that is approximately 12–14 times the pipe radius, one order of magnitude longer than the largest reported integral length scale, and more than four to five times longer than the length of a turbulent bulge. The wavelength decreases to approximately two pipe radii at the pipe centerline. It is conjectured that the very large-scale motions result from the coherent alignment of large-scale motions in the form of turbulent bulges or packets of hairpin vortices.

Accurate prediction of interfacial friction between the gas and liquid in annular two-phase flow in pipes is essential for the proper modelling of pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient in pipeline systems. Many empirical relationships have been obtained over the last half century. However, they are restricted to limited superficial liquid and gas velocity ranges, essentially apply to atmospheric pressures, and the relationships are only relevant for pipes with inner diameters between 10 and 50 mm. In this study, we carried out experiments in a large diameter flow loop of 101.6 mm internal diameter with the superficial gas and liquid ranges of 11-29 m/s and 0.1-1.0 m/s respectively. An examination of published interfacial friction factor correlations was carried out using a diverse database which was collected from the open literature for vertical annular flow. The database includes measurements in pipes of 16-127 mm inner diameter for the liquid film thickness, interfacial shear stress, and pressure gradient for air-water, air-water/glycerol, and argon-water flows. Eleven studies are represented with experimental pressures of up to 6 bar. Significant discrepancies were found between many of the published correlations and the large pipe data, primarily in the thick film region at low interfacial shear stress. A correlation for the interfacial friction factor was hence derived using the extensive database. The correlation includes dimensionless numbers for the effect of the diameter across pipe scales to be better represented and better fit the wide range of experimental conditions, fluid properties, and operating pressures.

This paper reports on a method for detecting three-dimensional particle positions and conducting three-dimensional microflow diagnostics in a microvolume via a three-pinhole defocusing concept. A simple setup and an easy detection method are described. The calibration-based defocusing method is suggested in place of formulae introduced through geometric analyses in previous studies. Depth calibration was performed in a microvolume, and X–Y compensation functions were obtained. By using the calibration functions, three-dimensional particle positions can be calculated at a sub-micron depth resolution. The effects of pinhole masks made with different pattern sizes are also described. The developed method was applied to a microflow in a micro backward-facing step. Time-resolved particle trajectories and three-dimensional volumetric velocity fields at a depth of 50 µm were obtained and are presented here.

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