The hereditary breast and ovarian cancer gene, BRCA1, encodes a large polypeptide that contains the cysteine-rich RING motif, a zinc-binding domain found in a variety of regulatory proteins. Here we describe a novel protein that interacts in vivo with the N-terminal region of BRCA1. This BRCA1-associated RING domain (BARD1) protein contains an N-terminal RING motif, three tandem ankyrin repeats, and a C-terminal sequence with significant homology to the phylogenetically conserved BRCT domains that lie near the C terminus of BRCA1. The BARD1/BRCA1 interaction is disrupted by BRCA1 missense mutations that segregate with breast cancer susceptibility, indicating that BARD1 may be involved in mediating tumour suppression by BRCA1.

Hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is an autosomal dominant condition in which bony outgrowths occur from the juxtaepiphyseal regions of the long bones. In a few percent of cases these exostoses undergo malignant transformation to chondrosarcomas. HME results from mutations in one of two homologous genes, EXT1 and EXT2. These are members of a new gene family that is conserved from Caenorhabditis elegans to higher vertebrates. In humans this family comprises five genes which are most conserved at their C-termini, but they do not contain any discernible functional motifs and their function(s) is unclear. Indirect evidence suggests that EXT proteins are involved in glycosaminoglycan synthesis, act as tumor suppressors and affect hedgehog signaling. One recent study has also reported that these proteins co-purify with glycosyltransferase (GlcA and GlcNAc transferase) activity and on that basis it has been postulated that they are themselves glycosyl-transferases. We performed two-hybrid screens with a fragment of EXT2 from the region that is most highly conserved in the gene family and identified two interacting proteins: the tumor necrosis factor type 1 associated protein and a novel UDP-GalNAc:poly-peptide N -acetylgalactosaminyltransferase. Significantly, both these interactions were abrogated by a disease-causing EXT mutation, indicating that they are important in the etiology of HME. The EXT2-GalNAc-T5 interaction provides the first direct physical link between EXT proteins and known components of glycosamino-glycan synthesis.

The BRCA1 gene encodes a tumor suppressor that has been implicated in hereditary forms of breast and ovarian cancer. During S phase of the cell cycle, BRCA1 polypeptides are found in discrete nuclear bodies (`BRCA1 nuclear dots') together with HsRad51, a human homolog of the E. coli recA protein, and BARD1, a protein that interacts with BRCA1 to form a stable heterodimer. BARD1 is structurally similar to BRCA1 in that both molecules harbor an amino-terminal RING domain and two carboxy-terminal BRCT domains. Here we describe the amino acid sequence and expression pattern of murine Bard1. A comparison of the mouse and human sequences reveals that the recognizable protein motifs of BARD1 are well conserved, including the RING domain, the three tandem ankyrin repeats, and, to a lesser extent, the two BRCT domains. However, the remaining sequences of BARD1 display a markedly lower degree of phylogenetic conservation, comparable to those reported for BRCA1 and BRCA2. Moreover, murine Bard1 retains the ability to associate in vivo with BRCA1, and its expression pattern in adult mice mirrors that of Brca1, with elevated levels of RNA transcripts found in the testes and spleen. These data suggest that BRCA1 and BARD1 have co-evolved to participate in a common pathway of tumor suppression.

No abstract

The central event in the cellular immune response to invading pathogens is the presentation of non-self antigenic peptides by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). As peptide binding and transport proteins, MHC class I molecules have evolved distinct biochemical and cellular strategies for acquiring antigenic peptides, providing CTLs an extracellular representation of the intracellular antigen content. Whereas efficient generation of MHC class I binding peptides depends on the intracellular, immunoproteasome-mediated proteolysis machinery, translocation of peptides into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum requires the endoplasmic reticulum-resident, adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) binding cassette transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). Here we show, for the first time, that immunoproteasomes, TAP complexes, and MHC class I molecules are physically associated, providing an effective means of transporting MHC class I binding peptides from their sites of generation into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum for loading onto MHC class I molecules. In this review, we assess the current understanding of the functional regulation of immunoproteasomes and transporter associated with antigen processing.