The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is an important model for studying the genetics of ageing, with over 50 life-extension mutations known so far. However, little is known about the pathobiology of ageing in this species, limiting attempts to connect genotype with senescent phenotype. Using ultrastructural analysis and visualization of specific cell types with green fluorescent protein, we examined cell integrity in different tissues as the animal ages. We report remarkable preservation of the nervous system, even in advanced old age, in contrast to a gradual, progressive deterioration of muscle, resembling human sarcopenia. The age-1(hx546) mutation, which extends lifespan by 60-100%, delayed some, but not all, cellular biomarkers of ageing. Strikingly, we found strong evidence that stochastic as well as genetic factors are significant in C. elegans ageing, with extensive variability both among same-age animals and between cells of the same type within individuals.

C. elegans is a powerful model for analysis of the conserved mechanisms that modulate healthy aging. In the aging nematode nervous system, neuronal death and/or detectable loss of processes are not readily apparent, but because dendrite restructuring and loss of synaptic integrity are hypothesized to contribute to human brain decline and dysfunction, we combined fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy (EM) to screen at high resolution for nervous system changes. We report two major components of morphological change in the aging C. elegans nervous system: 1) accumulation of novel outgrowths from specific neurons, and 2) physical decline in synaptic integrity. Novel outgrowth phenotypes, including branching from the main dendrite or new growth from somata, appear at a high frequency in some aging neurons, but not all. Mitochondria are often associated with age-associated branch sites. Lowered insulin signaling confers some maintenance of ALM and PLM neuron structural integrity into old age, and both DAF-16/FOXO and heat shock factor transcription factor HSF-1 exert neuroprotective functions. hsf-1 can act cell autonomously in this capacity. EM evaluation in synapse-rich regions reveals a striking decline in synaptic vesicle numbers and a dimunition of presynaptic density size. Interestingly, old animals that maintain locomotory prowess exhibit less synaptic decline than same-age decrepit animals, suggesting that synaptic integrity correlates with locomotory healthspan. Our data reveal similarities between the aging C. elegans nervous system and mammalian brain, suggesting conserved neuronal responses to age. Dissection of neuronal aging mechanisms in C. elegans may thus influence the development of brain healthspan-extending therapies.

Mating triggers behavioral and physiological changes in the Drosophila melanogaster female, including an elevation of egg laying. Seminal fluid molecules from the male accessory gland are responsible for initial behavioral changes, but persistence of these changes requires stored sperm. Using genetic analysis, we have identified a seminal fluid protein that is responsible for an initial elevation of egg laying. This molecule, Acp26Aa, has structural features of a prohormone and contains a region with amino acid similarity to the egg-laying hormone of Aplysia. Acp26Aa is transferred to the female during mating, where it undergoes processing. Here we report the generation and analysis of mutants, including a null, in Acp26Aa. Females mated to male flies that lack Acp26Aa lay fewer eggs than do mates of normal males. This effect is apparent only on the first day after mating. The null mutation has no other detectable physiological or behavioral effects on the male or the mated female.After mating, Drosophila melanogaster females undergo changes in their behavior and physiology. These changes persist for several days and include a stimulation of egg laying, a decrease in receptivity to further mating, and storage and utilization of sperm. In addition, mated females have a shorter life-span than unmated females (1, 2). D. melanogaster provides a genetic system to identify and examine the molecules that cause the changes in mated females. In this paper, we report that a molecule with sequence similarity to a hormone that stimulates egg laying in the mollusc Aplysia (3, 4) is involved in stimulating egg laying in D. melanogaster.Elevation of egg laying in Drosophila has two phases, a short-term phase that lasts 1 day and a long-term phase that lasts 7-9 days. Initially, egg laying is triggered by the transfer of seminal fluid to the female. This effect lasts I1 day (5). The long-term phase of increased egg laying requires the storage of sperm (5, 6). The seminal fluid components that stimulate egg laying derive from the accessory gland, a secretory tissue of the male reproductive tract. Transplantation of whole accessory glands into the abdomens of unmated females stimulated egg laying and decreased receptivity to mating to levels similar to those seen in mated females (7,8). Mates of male flies producing accessory gland secretions, but no sperm, show an increase in egg laying for 1 day only; mates of males lacking both accessory gland secretions and sperm show no stimulation (5).To identify products in accessory gland secretions, Chen et al. (9) assayed fractionated accessory gland extracts by injection into females. This process led to purification of a peptide (sex peptide) that stimulates egg laying for 1 day when injected in estimated physiological amounts into unmated females. Sex peptide can also decrease receptivity to mating for 1 day when introduced into unmated female flies (9). However, in at least one other Drosophila species in which a sex peptide exists, other molecules can also cause increased e...

Summary The roundworm C. elegans is widely used as an aging model, with hundreds of genes identified that modulate aging(Kaeberlein et al. 2002). The development and bodyplan of the 959 cells comprising the adult have been well described and established for more than 25 years(Sulston & Horvitz 1977; Sulston et al. 1983). However, morphological changes with age in this optically transparent animal are less well understood, with only a handful of studies investigating the pathobiology of aging. Age related changes in muscle(Herndon et al. 2002), neurons(Herndon et al. 2002), intestine and yolk granules(Garigan et al. 2002; Herndon et al. 2002), nuclear architecture(Haithcock et al. 2005), tail nuclei(Golden et al. 2007), and the germline(Golden et al. 2007) have been observed via a variety of traditional relatively low-throughput methods. We report here a number of novel approaches to study the pathobiology of aging C. elegans. We combined histological staining of serial-sectioned tissues, transmission electron microscopy, and confocal microscopy with 3-D volumetric reconstructions, and characterized age-related morphological changes of multiple wild-type individuals at different ages. This enabled us to identify several novel pathologies with age in the C. elegans intestine, including loss of critical nuclei, degradation of intestinal microvilli, changes in the size, shape, and cytoplasmic contents of the intestine, and altered morphologies due to ingested bacteria. The three-dimensional models we have created of tissues and cellular components from multiple individuals of different ages, represent a unique resource to demonstrate global heterogeneity of a multi-cellular organism.

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