Junior and senior clinicians showed a dramatic adoption of endoscopic techniques. Treatment of upper tract calculi is an evolving field and provider specific attributes affect how these stones are treated.

Interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC) is associated with significant morbidity, yet underlying mechanisms and diagnostic biomarkers remain unknown. Pelvic organs exhibit neural crosstalk by convergence of visceral sensory pathways, and rodent studies demonstrate distinct bacterial pain phenotypes, suggesting that the microbiome modulates pelvic pain in IC. Stool samples were obtained from female IC patients and healthy controls, and symptom severity was determined by questionnaire. Patients with urologic chronic pelvic pain syndromes (UCPPS) suffer chronic pelvic pain and dramatically lower quality of life, yet diagnostic markers and effective therapies remain elusive for these costly syndromes 1 . Interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS or IC) is a debilitating UCPPS condition of pelvic pain and voiding dysfunction that afflicts as many as 8 million U.S. women where depression is a common co-morbidity 2-5 . IC etiology remains unknown, but urothelial lesions and lamina propria mast cells are associated with patient symptoms [6][7][8] . HPA axis dysfunction has been implicated in female and male patients and cats with feline IC 9-13 , and thus may be common among UCPPS, but mechanisms that integrate pelvic pain, voiding dysfunction, HPA activity, and depression are lacking. Because of these long-standing questions, NIDDK has launched its flagship urology study, the Multi-Disciplinary Approaches to Chronic Pelvic Pain (MAPP) Research Network with the most comprehensive studies to date of UCPPS including clinical characterization and epidemiologic and mechanistic studies 14,15 . Operational taxonomic units (OTUsThe microbiome is increasingly appreciated as driving diverse physiologic processes in both health and disease 16,17 . With the notable exception of C. difficile colitis, early studies implicated pathogenic dysbioses primarily at the phylum and genus levels, but more recent studies identify individual species associated with disease. Moreover, individual species within the microbiome have recently been associated with driving disease through altered innate metabolism or altered pharmaceutical metabolism 18 . Despite these advances, it remains unclear whether microbiota contribute to pain syndromes generally and to UCPPS in particular. Consistent with the recent finding of a normal female urinary microbiome 19 , the MAPP Network is also exploring UCPPS microbiota with a focus on the urinary microbiome. MAPP Network studies have identified an association between fungi

Female surgeon gender has a significant influence on patient gender demographics among index urological procedures. As the number of women in urology grows, increasing attention to gender biases is necessary to understand how these disparities will shape the clinical landscape.

Although specialists and high volume surgeons perform a disproportionate number of implant surgeries, low volume surgeons place most penile prostheses in the United States. Additional research is needed to determine best practices to achieve optimal patient outcomes in penile prosthesis surgery.

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