The long-term stability of protein therapeutics in the solid-state depends on the preservation of native structure during lyophilization and in the lyophilized powder. Proteins can reversibly or irreversibly unfold upon lyophilization, acquiring conformations susceptible to degradation during storage. Therefore, characterizing proteins in the dried state is crucial for the design of safe and efficacious formulations. This review summarizes the basic principles and applications of the analytical techniques that are commonly used to characterize protein structure, dynamics and conformation in lyophilized solids. The review also discusses the applications of recently developed mass spectrometry based methods (solid-state hydrogen deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (ssHDX-MS) and solid-state photolytic labeling mass spectrometry (ssPL-MS)) and their ability to study proteins in the solid-state at high resolution.

This article offers a review of microarray/microneedle technologies and possible future directions in targeting and in the delivery of pharmacologically active compounds for unmet needs in biopharmaceutical research. A better understanding of the production and use of microarrays and microneedles for delivery of peptides, proteins and vaccines is needed.

Local side-chain interactions in lyophilized protein formulations were mapped using solid-state photolytic labeling-mass spectrometry (ssPL-MS). Photoactive amino acid analogs (PAAs) were used as probes and either added to the lyophilized matrix or incorporated within the amino acid sequence of a peptide. In the first approach, apomyoglobin was lyophilized with sucrose and varying concentrations of photo-leucine (L-2-amino-4, 4′-azipentanoic acid; pLeu). The lyophilized solid was irradiated at 365 nm to initiate photolabeling. The rate and extent of labeling were measured using ESI-HPLC-MS, with labeling reaching a plateau at ∼ 30 min, forming up to 6 labeled populations. Bottom-up MS/MS analysis was able to provide peptidelevel resolution of the location of pLeu. ssPL-MS was also able to detect differences in side-chain environment between sucrose and guanidine hydrochloride formulations. In the second approach, peptide GCG (1-8)* containing p-benzoyl-L-phenylalanine (pBpA) in the amino acid sequence was lyophilized with various excipients and irradiated. Peptide-peptide and peptide-excipient adducts were detected using MS. Top-down MS/MS on the peptide dimer provided amino acidlevel resolution regarding interactions and the cross-linking partner for pBpA in the solid state. The results show that ssPL-MS can provide high-resolution information about protein interactions in the lyophilized environment.

Amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange (ssHDX-MS) and side-chain photolytic labeling (ssPLMS) followed by mass spectrometric analysis can be valuable for characterizing lyophilized formulations of protein therapeutics. Labeling followed by suitable proteolytic digestion allows the protein structure and interactions to be mapped with peptide-level resolution. Since the protein structural elements are stabilized by a network of chemical bonds from the main-chains and side-chains of amino acids, specific labeling of atoms in the amino acid residues provides insight into the structure and conformation of the protein. In contrast to routine methods used to study proteins in lyophilized solids (e.g., FTIR), ssHDX-MS and ssPL-MS provide quantitative and site-specific information. The extent of deuterium incorporation and kinetic parameters can be related to rapidly and slowly exchanging amide pools (Nfast, Nslow) and directly reflects the degree of protein folding and structure in lyophilized formulations. Stable photolytic labeling does not undergo back-exchange, an advantage over ssHDX-MS. Here, we provide detailed protocols for both ssHDX-MS and ssPL-MS, using myoglobin (Mb) as a model protein in lyophilized formulations containing either trehalose or sorbitol.

Protein structure and local environment in lyophilized formulations were probed using high-resolution solid-state photolytic crosslinking with mass spectrometric analysis (ssPC-MS). In order to characterize structure and microenvironment, protein-protein, protein-excipient and protein-water interactions in lyophilized powders were identified. Myoglobin (Mb) was derivatized in solution with the heterobifunctional probe succinimidyl 4,4’-azipentanoate (SDA) and the structural integrity of the labeled protein (Mb-SDA) confirmed using CD spectroscopy and liquid chromatography / mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Mb-SDA was then formulated with and without excipients (raffinose, guanidine hydrochloride (Gdn HCl)) and lyophilized. The freeze-dried powder was irradiated with ultraviolet light at 365 nm for 30 min to produce crosslinked adducts that were analyzed at the intact protein level and after trypsin digestion. SDA-labeling produced Mb carrying up to 5 labels, as detected by LC-MS. Following lyophilization and irradiation, crosslinked peptide-peptide, peptide-water and peptide-raffinose adducts were detected. The exposure of Mb side chains to the matrix was quantified based on the number of different peptide-peptide, peptide-water and peptide-excipient adducts detected. In the absence of excipients, peptide-peptide adducts involving the CD, DE and EF loops and helix H were common. In the raffinose formulation, peptide-peptide adducts were more distributed throughout the molecule. The Gdn HCl formulation showed more protein-protein and protein-water adducts than the other formulations, consistent with protein unfolding and increased matrix interactions. The results demonstrate that ssPC-MS can be used to distinguish excipient effects and characterize the local protein environment in lyophilized formulations with high resolution.