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The problem of volition is partly a verbal problem, as the extent to which it has been ignored by experimental psychologists seems to imply. At the same time, however, the attributes of such behavior suggest a variety of empirical approaches, some of which are reviewed in this paper. Three new experiments, designed to demonstrate certain of these properties, are presented. These experiments employ what the authors believe to be a simple example of the automatization of a voluntary act. The results suggest that this process involves a novel form of reinforcement and that automatic acts are relatively independent of their consequences and are inhibited by the process of paying attention to them.

The magnitude of increase in systolic blood pressure in response to the shift from supine to upright posture is considered to reflect the adequacy of orthostatic regulation. Orthostatic integrity is largely maintained by the interaction between the skeletal muscle pump, neurovascular compensation, neurohumoral effects, and cerebral blood flow regulation. Various physiological states and disease conditions may disrupt these mechanisms as seen in vasovagal syncope, dysautonomic orthostatic intolerance, and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome. Orthostatic hypotension (OH) and decreased cerebral blood flow are strongly related. Even subclinical OH has been associated to different degrees with impaired cognitive function, decreased effort, reduced motivation, increased hopelessness, and signs of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and dementia, diabetes mellitus, and Parkinson disease. Furthermore, subclinical levels of inadequate blood pressure regulation in response to orthostasis have been linked to increased depression and anxiety and intergenerational behavioral sequelae between mother and child. Identifying causes of subclinical and clinical OH is critical in improving quality of life for both children and older adults. A better understanding of the underlying causes responsible for the etiology of OH could lead to a rational design of novel effective therapeutic regimens for the treatment of this condition and associated comorbidities.

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Non-insulin dependent diabetes in older adults is associated with elevated depression and a greater decline in certain aspects of cognitive functioning than is found with normal aging. This study sought to determine whether diabetics report more memory complaints in carrying out their daily activities, and if memory self-assessments are reflective of performance on laboratory tasks. Middle-aged (55-64 years) and old (65-74 years) diabetics and non-diabetic control subjects were studied. Results showed that both diabetes and increased age were associated with poorer performance on some cognitive tests as well as with more self-reported memory problems. When depression levels were statistically controlled, the diabetes variable was no longer a significant predictor of memory complaints. The usefulness of self-assessments as an adjunct to more objective cognitive test measures was discussed.