Cocaine effects are subtle and can be detected when studied in the context of polydrug use and level of cocaine exposure. Effects of other drugs even at low thresholds can also be observed in the context of a polydrug model. The ability to detect these drug effects requires a large sample and neurobehavioral tests that are differentially sensitive to drug effects. Long-term follow-up is necessary to determine whether these differences develop into clinically significant deficits.

Objective-This study examined the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) as a predictor of negative medical and behavioral findings one month to 4½ years of age.Methods-. The sample included 1248 mother-infant dyads (42% born <37 weeks' gestational age) participating in a longitudinal study of the effects of prenatal substance exposure on child development. Mothers were recruited at 4 urban university-based centers and were mostly AfricanAmerican and on public assistance. At 1 month of age, infants were tested with the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) was carried out on NNNS summary scales to identify discrete behavioral profiles. The validity of the NNNS was examined using logistic regression to predict prenatal drug exposure, medical and developmental outcomes through 4½ years of age including adjustment for gestational age and socioeconomic status (SES). Results-.Five discrete behavioral profiles were reliably identified with the most extreme negative profile found in 5.8% of the infants. The profiles showed statistically significant associations with prenatal drug exposure, gestational age and birthweight, head ultrasound, neurological and brain disease findings and abnormal scores on measures of behavior problems, school readiness and IQ through 4½ years of age.Conclusions-The NNNS may be useful to identify infant behavioral needs to be targeted in wellbaby pediatric care, as well as for referrals to community based early intervention services. In this study we describe a method to classify infants into discrete risk categories or "profiles" based on previously established NNNS summary scores. 4,21 We then examined the ability of the profiles to predict problematic medical and behavioral findings in infancy and early childhood. Keywords MethodsSubjects were enrolled in the Maternal Lifestyle Study (MLS), a multisite longitudinal study of children at risk due to factors such as prenatal exposure to cocaine and other substances and prematurity. 5 Details of enrollment and exclusion criteria are described elsewhere. [22][23][24][25] The study was approved by the institutional review board at each study site and written informed consent was obtained. The exposed group (n=658) was based on mother report of cocaine use during pregnancy and/or a positive meconium assay for cocaine. 22 The comparison group (n=730) included children born to mothers who denied cocaine use confirmed by negative meconium results, group matched to the exposed group by gestational age categories (<32 weeks, 33-36 weeks and >36 weeks), child gender, race, and ethnicity within study site. Background substances associated with cocaine use, alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana, were included in both groups. Children were seen at 10 visits from 1 month to 4½ years with an average retention rate of 78%. Measures NNNSThe NNNS was administered by certified, blinded psychometrists at the hospital clinic 1-month visit to 1248 (90%) of the original 1388 infants. Items from the NNNS were scored using pre...

These findings suggest neurotoxic effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on newborn neurobehavior. Dose-response relationships could indicate neonatal withdrawal from nicotine. Research directed at understanding the effects of cigarette smoking during pregnancy on infants can lead to improved public health outcome.

Infant crying signals distress to potential caretakers who can alleviate the aversive conditions that gave rise to the cry. The cry signal results from coordination among several brain regions that control respiration and vocal cord vibration from which the cry sounds are produced. Previous work has shown a relationship between acoustic characteristics of the cry and diagnoses related to neurological damage, SIDS, prematurity, medical conditions, and substance exposure during pregnancy. Thus, assessment of infant cry provides a window into the neurological and medical status of the infant. Assessment of infant cry is brief and noninvasive and requires recording equipment and a standardized stimulus to elicit a pain cry. The typical protocol involves 30 seconds of crying from a single application of the stimulus. The recorded cry is submitted to an automated computer analysis system that digitizes the cry and either presents a digital spectrogram of the cry or calculates measures of cry characteristics. The most common interpretation of cry measures is based on deviations from typical cry characteristics. Another approach evaluates the pattern across cry characteristics suggesting arousal or under-arousal or difficult temperament. Infants with abnormal cries should be referred for a full neurological evaluation. The second function of crying--to elicit caretaking--involves parent perception of the infant's needs. Typically, parents are sensitive to deviations in cry characteristics, but their perception can be altered by factors in themselves (e.g., depression) or in the context (e.g., culture). The potential for cry assessment is largely untapped. Infant crying and parental response is the first language of the new dyadic relationship. Deviations in the signal and/or misunderstanding the message can compromise infant care, parental effectiveness, and undermine the budding relationship. (c) 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. MRDD Research Reviews 2005;11:83-93.