Recent data suggest that opioids can activate immune-like cells of the central nervous system (glia). This opioid-induced glial activation is associated with decreased analgesia, owing to the release of proinflammatory mediators. Here we examine in rats whether the putative microglial inhibitor, minocycline, may affect morphine-induced respiratory depression and/or morphine-induced reward (conditioned place preference). Systemic co-administration of minocycline significantly attenuated morphine-induced reductions in tidal volume, minute volume, inspiratory force and expiratory force, but did not affect morphine-induced reductions in respiratory rate. Minocycline attenuation of respiratory depression was also paralleled with significant attenuation by minocycline of morphine-induced reductions in blood oxygen saturation. Minocycline also attenuated morphine conditioned place preference. Minocycline did not simply reduce all actions of morphine, as morphine analgesia was significantly potentiated by minocycline co-administration. Lastly, morphine dose-dependently increased cyclooxygenase-1 gene expression in a rat microglial cell line, an effect that was dose-dependently blocked by minocycline. Together, these data support that morphine can directly activate microglia in a minocycline-suppressible manner and suggest a pivotal role for minocycline-sensitive processes in the mechanisms of morphine-induced respiration depression, reward, and pain modulation.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAchR) are key receptors in the autonomic nervous system, but also are present on immune cells. The alpha seven subunit of nAchR (α7nAchR) suppresses proinflammation in peripheral monocytes by decreasing proinflammatory cytokine production. In spinal cord, α7nAchR are found on microglia, which are known to induce and maintain pain. We predicted that α7nAchR agonists might attenuate intrathecal HIV-1 gp120-induced, proinflammatory cytokineand microglia-dependent mechanical allodynia. Choline, a precursor for acetylcholine and selective agonist for α7nAchR, was administered intrathecally either with, or 30 min after, intrathecal gp120. Choline significantly blocked and reversed gp120 induced mechanical allodynia for at least 4 hr after drug administration. In addition, intrathecal choline, delivered either with or 30 min after gp120, reduced gp120-induced IL-1β protein and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNAs within the lumbar spinal cord. A second α7nAchR agonist, GTS-21, also significantly reversed gp120-induced mechanical allodynia and lumbar spinal cord levels of proinflammatory cytokine mRNAs and IL-1β protein. A role of microglia is suggested by the observation that intrathecal choline suppressed the gp120-induced expression of, cd11b, a macrophage/microglial activation marker. Taken together, the data support that α7nAchR may be a novel target for treating pain where microglia maintain the proinflammatory state within the spinal cord.