The shift to a knowledge society has transformed the way we live and work, which is especially challenging to adults with low education levels. Adult education could be the answer, but loweducated adults participate least in adult education. The present study uses data from the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies to investigate participation needs and barriers of low-, medium-and high-educated adults across 15 European countries (N = 20,593). Descriptives show that low-educated adults report the lowest need for training to exercise their job and indicate to be the least prevented from taking more training because of experienced barriers. We then analysed which barriers non-participating and participating adults were referring to. While medium-and high-educated nonparticipants indicate being prevented because of work and family responsibilities, low-educated non-participants chose family responsibilities but mainly and remarkably the option 'other' as their most important barrier. Contrary to medium-and higheducated adults, low-educated adults' most important barrier could not be defined. A possible explanation is that they experience more dispositional barriers (such as bad memories of education or low self-esteem), which were not included in the list. Our results point to the importance of targeting loweducated adults in participation research.

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Low-educated adults do not often engage in lifelong learning. The current study examines whether and how psychosocial beliefs about lifelong learning differ between adults with different levels of educational attainment. The Theory of Planned Behaviour, which focuses on three specific psychosocial beliefs (related to Perceived Behavioural Control, Perceived Social Norms, and Attitudes) is used as a theoretical framework. In total, 563 adults completed our survey. ANOVA-analyses were used to study between-groups differences. The results demonstrated that low-and medium-educated adults' experiences with psychosocial barriers are quite similar, except for power of control, since medium-educated adults experience more control over learning skills needed to participate. High-educated adults experience statistically significant more social pressure to engage in lifelong learning, especially from their work-related referents. In addition, high-educated adults experience statistically significant more control over their participation, specifically when it comes to control over skills necessary to participate in learning. Low-and medium-educated adults do show positive attitudes towards learning, but high-educated adults' attitudes are statistically significant more positive. Follow-up, qualitative studies could provide in-depth insight into these determinants. Additional understanding of the three psychosocial barriers could help educational institutions and policy makers to appropriately attract and support adult learners.

Low-educated adults participate less in adult education than higher-educated adults. In this study, we analyze psychosocial barriers to learning while acknowledging that barriers for low-educated adults may be different from those of medium- and high-educated adults. An extended version of the Theory of Planned Behavior is used to study training intention. We add prior Learning Experiences as predictor to the model. A total of 563 adults filled in the questionnaire. Higher-educated adults show more Perceived Behavioral Control, Perceived Social Norms, and more positive Attitudes towards lifelong learning. Logistic regression demonstrated that Perceived Behavioral Control, Perceived Social Norms and Attitudes are related to training intention, but prior Learning Experiences are not. Mediation analyses showed that the relationship between Perceived Behavioral Control and Intention is mediated through Learning Experiences. The findings suggest that psychosocial barriers need to be taken into account when considering how to reach non-participating adults.