There is significant interest in the use of mushrooms and/or mushroom extracts as dietary supplements based on theories that they enhance immune function and promote health. To some extent, select mushrooms have been shown to have stimulatory action on immune responsiveness, particularly when studied in vitro. However, despite their widespread use for potential health benefits, there is a surprising paucity of epidemiologic and experimental studies that address the biologic activities of mushrooms after oral administration to animals or humans. There have been a number of studies that have addressed the ability of mushrooms to modulate mononuclear cell activation and the phenotypic expression of cytokines and their cognate receptors. There have also been a number of attempts to determine antitumor activities of mushrooms. Such studies are important because many of the components of mushrooms do potentially have significant biologic activity. All data, however, should be tempered by the possibility that there are toxic levels of metals, including arsenic, lead, cadmium, and mercury as well as the presence of radioactive contamination with 137Cs. In this review, we will present the comparative biology with respect to both immunological and antitumor activities of mushroom extracts and also highlight the need for further evidence-based research.

Tattoos are defined as the introduction of exogenous pigments into the dermis in order to produce a permanent design. This process may occur unintentional or may be deliberately administered for cosmetic or medical reasons. Tattoos have been around for over 5000 years and over time have evolved to represent a common cosmetic practice worldwide. Currently, adverse reactions are relatively rare and generally unpredictable and predominantly include immune-mediated reactions and skin infections. Along with better healthcare standards and more stringent public health mandates such as the provision of disposable needles, major infectious complications related to hepatitis and human retroviral infections have decreased significantly. When they do occur, skin infections are most frequently associated with Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes. The aim of this study is to review the types and rates of medical complications of permanent tattoos. PubMed search and search dates were open ended. Acute local inflammation is the most common complication, but infections, allergic contact dermatitis, and other inflammatory or immune responses that are not well-characterized may occur. As many patients with immune reactions to tattoos do not react on skin or patch testing, it is postulated that the antigens contained in dyes or pigments are such small molecules that they need to be haptenized in order to become immunogenic. Red ink is associated more frequently with long-term reactions, including granulomatous and pseudolymphomatous phenomena or morphea-like lesions and vasculitis. Exacerbation of preexisting psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and pyoderma gangrenosum may occur after tattooing. There is no well-defined association between cancer and tattoos. The treatment of tattoo-related complications may include local destructive measures (cryotherapy, electro-surgery, dermabrasion, chemical destruction, ablative laser destruction), surgical excision, and thermolysis of the pigment using Q-switched laser therapy.

Medicinal properties have been attributed to mushrooms for thousands of years. Mushroom extracts are widely sold as nutritional supplements and touted as beneficial for health. Yet, there has not been a critical review attempting to integrate their nutraceutical potential with basic science. Relatively few studies are available on the biologic effects of mushroom consumption, and those have been performed exclusively in murine models. In this paper, we review existing data on the mechanism of whole mushrooms and isolated mushroom compounds, in particular (1→3)-␤-Dglucans, and the means by which they modulate the immune system and potentially exert tumor-inhibitory effects. We believe that the antitumor mechanisms of several species of whole mushrooms as well as of polysaccharides isolated from Lentinus edodes, Schizophyllum commune, Grifola frondosa, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum are mediated largely by T cells and macrophages. Despite the structural and functional similarities of these glucans, they differ in their effectiveness against specific tumors and in their ability to elicit various cellular responses, particularly cytokine expression and production. Unfortunately, our data base on the involvement of these important mediators is still rather limited, as are studies concerning the molecular mechanisms of the interactions of glucans with their target cells. As long as it remains unclear what receptors are involved in, and what downstream events are triggered by, the binding of these glucans to their target cells, it will be difficult to make further progress in understanding not only their antitumor mechanisms but also their other biological activities.

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