Background Bacterial contamination of drinking water is a major public health problem in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Unimproved water sources are a major reservoir of Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) causing severe diarrhoea in humans. This study assessed E. coli counts in drinking water from different sources and their relationship with water source protection status and neighbourhood sanitation and hygiene practices in rural villages of Mohale Basin in Lesotho. Methods Thirty drinking water sources were purposively sampled and their water analysed for E. coli counts. The types of water sources, their protection status and neighbourhood sanitation and hygiene practices in their proximity were also assessed. E. coli counts in water samples were compared to water source protection status, neighbourhood sanitation, hygiene practices, livestock faeces and latrine proximity to water sources. Results E. coli counts were found in all water samples and ranged from less than 30 colony-forming units (cfu)/100 ml to 4800 cfu/100 ml in protected sources to 43,500,000 cfu/100 ml in unprotected sources. A significant association between E. coli counts in drinking water samples and lack of water source protection, high prevalence of open defecation (59%, n = 100), unhygienic practices, livestock faeces and latrine detections in proximity to water sources was found in the study ( P < 0.05). Conclusion Water sources in studied villages were contaminated with faeces and posed a health risk to consumers of that water. Community-led sanitation and hygiene education and better water source protection are urgently needed.

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Wetlands in Lesotho are at the headwaters of some shared river basins like the Orange-Senqu River basin. These wetlands are threatened by various anthropogenic activities which are compromising their water quality. This study assessed the water quality status of the Khubelu wetland and stream using various water quality parameters to determine its suitability for domestic use, irrigation, and livestock watering. This was a preliminary research study on the suitability of the stream water for various uses in the study area. Calcium was the most concentrated cation in the stream (8.20 mg/L to 16.8 mg/L), followed by magnesium (7.29 mg/L to 12.51 mg/L), with sodium and potassium showing minimum values. The chemical oxygen demand values were in the range of 48 to 160 mg/L. All parameters were within the EU and WHO ranges for drinking water, except EC, DO, BOD, COD, and PO4 levels. The Khubelu wetland water quality index (WQI) had a value of 93, whereas the stream WQI value was 107. The sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) values for the wetland and stream were 3.83 and 1.04, respectively, whereas the Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP) ranged from 18.19 to 39.25%. The stream water quality was acceptable for animal watering and crop irrigation, whereas wetland water would be acceptable for animal watering and would present some challenges for crop irrigation purposes due to the magnesium hazard it poses. The implications for the management of the wetland are discussed.

This study determines the extent of degradation of soils in Khubelu wetland in Lesotho and the impact this may have on its water purification potential. 72 soil samples are collected at different sites and depths around the wetland and characterized for different properties. The values of these properties are then used to determine the chemical degradation index (CDI) of the wetland soils. The soils are non‐saline (electrical conductivity < 0.25 mS cm−1), mostly acidic (4.5 < pH < 5.22) with moderate organic matter content (2.06–3.9%). Soil properties vary with depth and from upstream to downstream of the wetland. Values for soil CDI are 3.42, 3.25, and 3.06 for soils from upstream, midstream, and downstream of the wetland respectively, indicating a decrease in soil degradation from upstream to downstream. The dominance of emergent vegetation in the wetland indicates a potential to get rid of sediments in wetland influents but the soil characteristics may present a challenge in the removal of nutrients and organic and inorganic pollutants from these influents. The characteristics of the soils and the extent of soil degradation present some challenges in the wetland’s ability to filter out nutrients and organic and inorganic pollutants.