Objective To explore the association between migraine and risk of ischaemic stroke. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Objectives To quantify the risk of Alzheimer's disease in users of all non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and users of aspirin and to determine any influence of duration of use. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies published between 1966 and October 2002 that examined the role of NSAID use in preventing Alzheimer's disease. Studies identified through Medline, Embase, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, and the Cochrane Library. Results Nine studies looked at all NSAIDs in adults aged > 55 years. Six were cohort studies (total of 13 211 participants), and three were case-control studies (1443 participants). The pooled relative risk of Alzheimer's disease among users of NSAIDs was 0.72 (95% confidence interval 0.56 to 0.94). The risk was 0.95 (0.70 to 1.29) among short term users ( < 1 month) and 0.83 (0.65 to 1.06) and 0.27 (0.13 to 0.58) among intermediate term (mostly < 24 months) and long term (mostly > 24 months) users, respectively. The pooled relative risk in the eight studies of aspirin users was 0.87 (0.70 to 1.07). Conclusions NSAIDs offer some protection against the development of Alzheimer's disease. The appropriate dosage and duration of drug use and the ratios of risk to benefit are still unclear.

Many exposures of epidemiological interest are time varying, and the values of potential confounders may change over time leading to time varying confounding. The aim of many longitudinal studies is to estimate the causal effect of a time varying exposure on an outcome that requires adjusting for time varying confounding. Time varying confounding affected by previous exposure often occurs in practice, but it is usually adjusted for by using conventional analytical methods such as time dependent Cox regression, random effects models, or generalised estimating equations, which are known to provide biased effect estimates in this setting. This article explains time varying confounding affected by previous exposure and outlines three causal methods proposed to appropriately adjust for this potential bias: inverseprobability-of-treatment weighting, the parametric G formula, and G estimation. Many longitudinal studies aim to estimate the overall causal effect of a time varying exposure on the outcome, which requires adjustment for time varying confounding. However, in certain clinical scenarios one or more time varying confounders are affected by past exposure. In our clinical example, serum testosterone level is the time varying confounder because doctors are likely to use the value of testosterone to titrate treatment. The level of testosterone after baseline is, however, affected by baseline testosterone treatment. This pattern, for lack of a shorter term, is referred to as "time varying confounding affected by past exposure."The problem: controlling for time varying confounding affected by past exposure Several methods can control confounding in observational studies at the design and analysis stages, including restriction, stratification, regression modelling, matching, and propensity scoring. Summary poinTS• Many exposures of epidemiological interest are time varying, and time varying confounding affected by past exposure often occurs in practice• Time varying confounding affected by past exposure is often adjusted for by using conventional analytical methods such as time dependent Cox regression, random effects models, or generalised estimating equations in clinical research, which are known to provide biased effect estimates in this setting• Three causal methods have been proposed to appropriately adjust for time varying confounders that are affected by past exposure: inverse-probability-oftreatment weighting, parametric G formula, and G estimation

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