Drought has long been a phenomenon of interest to ecologists, with research articles that include "drought" in their title dating back at least to the 1920s (Gorham & Kelly, 2018). For many biomes, understanding the dynamics of ecosystem structure and function requires knowledge of their response to periodic droughts (Smith, 2011; Vicente-Serrano et al., 2013). Moreover, extreme drought has been associated with regional-scale forest mortality and global carbon cycle anomalies (

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Human exposure to heavy metals is associated with higher rates of immunological deficiencies, autoimmunity, and cancer. Chronic exposure to lead contributes to abnormalities in immunomodulation while cadmium is linked to breast, prostate, and lung cancers. Prenatal exposure to these metals impacts both the development and function of immune cells. The concept of one health underscores the importance of the interface between human, animal, and environmental health. Herein, we highlight heavy metal exposure via honey consumption as an example of the critical intersection of these factors as they relate to immunological impacts and downstream pathologies.

Apis mellifera L. is considered one of the most important pollinators in nature. Unfortunately, in addition to other insect species, honey bee populations are decreasing at an alarming rate, urging researchers to investigate the causes and stressors that precipitated this decline. This study focuses on chemical stressors that are found to affect bee populations. We used pollen and honey samples to examine the variations in pesticides, selenium, and heavy metals in two different landscapes: urban and agricultural areas of northeastern Colorado, USA. Subsequently, we extrapolated the risks of these toxins’ residues to Apis spp. Based on the current literature, we found no spatial variations in metal and selenium concentrations in the pollen and honey samples collected from urban and agricultural areas. Moreover, we observed no spatial variations in pesticide concentrations in pollen and honey samples. Based on the previous literature and a comparison of the residues of heavy metals, selenium, and pesticides in our pollen and honey samples, we found that the heavy metal and selenium residues in some honey and pollen likely pose a severe health risk to honey bees. Although the levels of pesticide residues were below the documented thresholds of risk, we consider the possibility of synergistic chemical impacts. Our findings support future efforts to investigate the health risks associated with multiple-factor combinations.