Depression is the principal cause of illness and disability in the world. Studies charting the prevalence of depression among children and adolescents report high percentages of youngsters in both groups with depressive symptoms. This review analyzes the construct and explanatory theories of depression and offers a succinct overview of the main evaluation instruments used to measure this disorder in children and adolescents, as well as the prevention programs developed for the school environment and the different types of clinical treatment provided. The analysis reveals that in mental classifications, the child depression construct is no different from the adult one, and that multiple explanatory theories must be taken into account in order to arrive at a full understanding of depression. Consequently, both treatment and prevention should also be multifactorial in nature. Although universal programs may be more appropriate due to their broad scope of application, the results are inconclusive and fail to demonstrate any solid long-term efficacy. In conclusion, we can state that: (1) There are biological factors (such as tryptophan—a building block for serotonin-depletion, for example) which strongly influence the appearance of depressive disorders; (2) Currently, negative interpersonal relations and relations with one's environment, coupled with social-cultural changes, may explain the increase observed in the prevalence of depression; (3) Many instruments can be used to evaluate depression, but it is necessary to continue to adapt tests for diagnosing the condition at an early age; (4) Prevention programs should be developed for and implemented at an early age; and (5) The majority of treatments are becoming increasingly rigorous and effective. Given that initial manifestations of depression may occur from a very early age, further and more in-depth research is required into the biological, psychological and social factors that, in an interrelated manner, may explain the appearance, development, and treatment of depression.

The purpose of this study is two-fold: (a) to analyze self-concept, self-esteem, and psychopathological symptoms in individuals with and without intellectual disability; and (b) to explore whether there were gender differences in these same variables in both groups. The sample is made up of 170 participants aged 19 to 40, 128 without disability and 42 with intellectual disability. The methodology is descriptive. To measure the variables, three assessment instruments were applied: the "Listado de adjetivos para la evaluación del autoconcepto en adolescentes y adultos" (LAEA; Garaigordobil, in press), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965), and the Revised Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90; Derogatis, 1983). The ANOVA showed that participants with intellectual disability scored significantly lower in self-concept and self-esteem, and higher in all the psychopathological symptoms except for somatization. The ANOVA did not reveal significant gender differences in any variables in either of the two groups. Keywords: intellectual disability, self-concept, self-esteem, psychopathologyEl estudio tuvo dos objetivos: (a) analizar el autoconcepto, la autoestima y diversos síntomas psicopatológicos en personas con y sin discapacidad intelectual; y (b) explorar la existencia de diferencias de género en autoconcepto, autoestima y síntomas psicopatológicos en ambos grupos. La muestra está configurada con 170 participantes de 19 a 40 años, 128 sin discapacidad y 42 con discapacidad intelectual. El estudio empleó una metodología descriptiva. Para medir las variables se aplicaron tres instrumentos de evaluación: "Listado de adjetivos para la evaluación del autoconcepto en adolescentes y adultos" (LAEA; Garaigordobil, en prensa), la Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg (EA; Rosenberg, 1965), y el Listado de Síntomas-90-Revisado (SCL-90-R;Derogatis, 1983). Los resultados del ANOVA muestran que las personas con discapacidad intelectual obtenían puntuaciones significativamente inferiores en autoconcepto y autoestima, así como superiores en todos los síntomas psicopatológicos excepto en somatización. Los ANOVAs no evidencian diferencias de género en ninguna variable tanto en el grupo con discapacidad intelectual como en el grupo sin discapacidad.

El trabajo tuvo como objetivo explorar las relaciones que existen entre la conducta antisocial, la implicación en situaciones de bullying/cyberbullying y las estrategias de resolución de conflictos. La muestra estuvo constituida por 3,026 participantes de 12 a 18 años (48.5% varones, 51.5% mujeres), inscritos en centros públicos (45.6%) y privados (54.4%) del País Vasco. Con un diseño descriptivo y correlacional, se administraron 4 instrumentos de evaluación para medir las variables objeto de estudio (conducta antisocial, bullying/cyberbullying y resolución de conflictos). Los análisis correlacionales y de varianza confirmaron que los adolescentes y jóvenes de ambos sexos con altas puntuaciones en conducta antisocial estaban significativamente más implicados en situaciones de bullying y cyberbullying en todos sus roles (víctimas, agresores y observadores) y usaban significativamente más estrategias agresivas como técnica de resolución de conflictos interpersonales. El estudio identifica variables relevantes para el diseño de programas de intervención. La discusión gira en torno a la importancia de implementar programas psicoeducativos de prevención e intervención de la conducta antisocial, así como al papel de la familia y la sociedad.

The purpose of the study was to analyze the psychometric properties of the Cyberbullying Test. The sample included 3,026 participants from the Basque Country (northern Spain), aged 12 to 18 years. Results confirmed high internal consistency and moderate temporal stability. Exploratory factor analysis yielded three moderately correlated factors (cyberobserver, cyberaggressor, and cybervictim). Confirmatory factor analysis ratified adequate model fit of the three factors. Convergent and discriminant validity were confirmed: (a) cybervictims use a variety of conflict resolution strategies, scoring high in neuroticism, openness, antisocial behavior, emotional attention, school-academic problems, shyness-withdrawal, psychopathological disorders, anxiety, and psychosomatic complaints, and low in agreeableness, responsibility, self-esteem, and social adjustment and (b) cyberaggressors use many aggressive conflict resolution strategies, scoring high in neuroticism, antisocial behavior, school-academic problems, psychopathological and psychosomatic disorders, and low in empathy, agreeableness, responsibility, emotion regulation, and social adjustment. The study confirms the test's reliability and validity.

Resumen: El estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar cambios con la edad en ciberbullying. La muestra fue de 3026 participantes del País Vasco de 12 a 18 años. Se administró el Test Cyberbullying para evaluar la frecuencia con la que 15 conductas han sido sufridas, realizadas y observadas durante el úl-timo año, y permite obtener 4 indicadores psicométricos: victimización, agresión, observación, victimización-agresiva. Los resultados evidenciaron: 1) Similar porcentaje de víctimas de 12 a 18 años en las 15 conductas; 2) Un aumento de agresores a medida que aumenta la edad en 5 conductas (difundir fotos comprometidas, chantajear-amenazar, acosar sexualmente, robar la contraseña, amenazar de muerte); 3) Un incremento de observadores con la edad en 12 conductas (enviar mensajes ofensivos, llamadas ofensivas, difundir fotos comprometidas, hacer fotos robadas para humillar, llamadas anónimas para asustar, suplantar la personalidad, robo de contraseña, trucar fotos para humillar, aislar en redes sociales, chantajear para obligar a hacer algo, amenazar de muerte, difamar/difundir rumores); y 4) Un aumento con la edad en la media de conductas de ciberbullying que los agresores realizan, y que los testigos ven. El estudio provee información sobre la significativa prevalencia del ciberbullying durante la adolescencia y juventud. La discusión se centra en la necesidad de implementar programas de intervención psicoeducativa para prevenir la violencia entre iguales. Palabras clave: Ciberbullying; violencia; edad; adolescencia; juventud.Title: Cyberbullying in adolescents and youth in the Basque Country: Changes with age. Abstract:The study aimed to analyze changes with age in cyberbullying. The sample comprised 3,026 participants from the Basque Country, aged from 12 to 18 years. The Cyberbullying Test was administered to assess the frequency with which 15 behaviors had been received, performed and observed during the past year, and to identify 4 psychometric indicators: victimization, perpetration, observation, and aggressive victimization. The results showed: 1) Similar percentages of victims from 12 to 18 years in the 15 conducts; 2) An increase of aggressors with age in 5 conducts (broadcasting private photos, blackmailing-threatening, sexual harassment, stealing a password, death threats); 3) An increase of observers with age in 12 conducts (sending offensive messages, offensive calls, broadcasting private photos/videos, taking photos in dressing rooms/beach… to humiliate; anonymous frightening calls, identity theft, stealing a password, rigging photos to humiliate, isolating on social networks, blackmail to obligate to do something, death threats, slandering/spreading rumors); and 4) An increase with age of the average of aggressive conducts performed by the aggressors and seen by the observers. The study provides information on the significant prevalence of cyberbullying during adolescence and youth. The discussion focuses on the need to implement psychoeducational intervention programs to prevent peer violence. Key words:...