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The excess-commuting literature provides a methodological framework in which the observed average commute (C obs ) is compared with theoretical commuting values: the minimum (C min ) and maximum (C max ) average commute. In this paper, I argue that real spatial behavior is ill represented by the two assumptions of optimal (minimizing or maximizing) behavior. C min and C max are in fact extreme values of a much richer distribution of commuting possibilities. I argue that all those possibilities should be taken into account in the evaluation of C obs . In order to do this, I develop a probabilistic framework where any urban form is associated with a statistical distribution of commuting possibilities, with an average and a standard deviation, within which C min and C max represent extreme and very improbable outcomes. Applied to a sample of fifty metropolitan areas, this framework helps us understand the combined association of spatial behavior and urban form with commuting.

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Les services de santé et les services sociaux en français ne sont accessibles qu’auprès d’un quart de la population francophone au Manitoba (de Moissac, 2011). Une pénurie de professionnels pouvant offrir des services en français est perçue comme un obstacle important pour les usagers qui recherchent ces services et pour les professionnels qui voudraient assurer un suivi en français pour leurs clients. Une hésitation à s’identifier comme francophone et un manque de connaissance des ressources disponibles en français contribuent-ils à cette perception de pénurie? Cet article traite des défis entourant l’offre de services de santé et de services sociaux en français au Manitoba et suggère des pistes de solutions.