The Western Honeybee is a key pollinator for natural as well as agricultural ecosystems. In the last decade massive honeybee colony losses have been observed worldwide, the result of a complex syndrome triggered by multiple stress factors, with the RNA virus Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) and the mite Varroa destructor playing crucial roles. The mite supports replication of DWV to high titers, which exert an immunosuppressive action and correlate with the onset of the disease.The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 1,3–1,6 β-glucan, a natural innate immune system modulator, on honeybee response to low-titer natural and high-titer experimental DWV infection. As the effects exerted by ß-glucans can be remarkably different, depending on the target organism and the dose administered, two parallel experiments were performed, where 1,3–1,6 ß-glucan at a concentration of 0.5% and 2% respectively, was added to the diet of three cohorts of newly emerged honeybees, which were sampled from a Varroa-free apiary and harboured a low endogenous DWV viral titer. Each cohort was subjected to one of the following experimental treatments: no injection, injection of a high-copy number DWV suspension into the haemocel (experimental DWV infection) or injection of PBS into the haemocoel (physical injury). Control bees fed a ß-glucan-free diet were subjected to the same treatments. Viral load, survival rate, haemocyte populations and phenoloxidase activity of each experimental group were measured and compared. The results indicated that oral administration of 0.5% ß-glucan to naturally infected honeybees was associated with a significantly decrease of the number of infected bees and viral load they carried, and with a significant increase of the survival rate, suggesting that this natural immune modulator molecule might contribute to increase honeybee resistance to viral infection.

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The aim of the study was to identify the habitat preferences and home range of resident and relocated brown hares during the nohunting period. The trial was carried out in a protected area and in a free-hunting territory (FHT), both located in the Florence province. During the captures, 21 hares were equipped with a necklace radio-tag: seven hares (resident group) were released in the same area of capture and 14 hares (relocated group) were relocated in six different locations within the FHT. The effect of the place of release was analysed by ANOVA and/or nonparametric methods. Results showed that the home ranges of the resident group were characterized by a greater amount of fallow land and shrub land than of the relocated group (P<0.05). Home range sizes and maximum distances from the releasing sites were greater in the relocated group. Resident hares preferred landscape characterized by a higher density of patches (152 vs. 70 n/100 ha), patch richness (43 vs. 12 n/100 ha), and patch area (4703 vs. 8142 m 2 ) than the relocated hares (P<0.01). The landscape structure indices, the home range sizes and the maximum distance from the releasing sites suggest that the relocated hares, even if released in suitable habitats, will move from their releasing point to look for better habitats. The landscape with the most complexity is preferred by the resident hares. This result should be considered when a project is programmed to reintroduce this lagomorph into a territory, or when it is necessary to improve the dynamics of a natural population.

With the aim to evaluate the capturing techniques some haematic and physiological parameters were studied to discriminate stressed hares from non stressed hares. A total of 66 wild hares (experimental group) were sampled in 14 different non-hunting areas, where hares are usually captured for later release in low-density areas. In the same season a total of 30 hares (about 1 year old), reared in cages and thus showing a reduced fear of man, were sampled (control group). In each area the hares were captured by coursing with 3-4 dogs (greyhounds or lurches). The dogs were released by the different hunter teams to find and drive into trammel nets any hare that was seen running. After capture, the hares remained inside darkened, wooden capture-boxes for a variable period of time before blood drawing. For blood sample collection all the hares were physically restrained and their eyes immediately covered. Blood, always collected within 1-2 minutes, was drawn from the auricular vein. Blood samples (plasma) were analysed for glucose, AST, ALT, CPK and cortisol concentrations. Body temperature, heart and respiratory rate, sex, and age were evaluated in each hare. The effect of origin, sex and age on haematic and physiological parameters was analysed by ANOVA. Every measured parameter of the hares bearing to the capture group or the control group (reared) was then subjected to stepwise and to discriminant analysis, in order to select the groups of stressed (discriminated by the controls) and non-stressed hares. CPK, AST and glucose were found to be the best parameters for distinguishing stressed from non-stressed hares. The intensive exercise suffered by the wild hares induced a depletion of energetic reserves, so that most of the captured hares showed lower glucose and higher CPK activity in the plasma, probably due to muscle damage (P < 0.05). After reclassifying the hares in the two groups of stressed and non stressed hares, the reference values (means SE) resulted as follows: estimated non-stressed hares, glucose 234 +/- 9.4 mg/dl, AST 112 +/- 22.2 U/I, CPK 1334 734 U/I; estimated stressed hares, glucose 128 7 mg/dl, AST 164 13 U/I, CPK 4658 +/- 454 U/I. fThese three cheap and quickly analysable analytes can be useful to the game manager in detecting stressed and non stressed hares, in order to improve the capturing techniques by the evaluation of the following relationship: (number of stressed hares + number of the dead hares during the capture)/number of total captured hares