Defecation in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a readily observable ultradian behavioral rhythm that occurs once every 45-50 s and is mediated in part by posterior body wall muscle contraction (pBoc). pBoc is not regulated by neural input but instead is likely controlled by rhythmic Ca 2 ϩ oscillations in the intestinal epithelium. We developed an isolated nematode intestine preparation that allows combined physiological, genetic, and molecular characterization of oscillatory Ca 2 ϩ signaling. Isolated intestines loaded with fluo-4 AM exhibit spontaneous rhythmic Ca 2 ϩ oscillations with a period of ‫ف‬ 50 s. Oscillations were only detected in the apical cell pole of the intestinal epithelium and occur as a posterior-to-anterior moving intercellular Ca 2 ϩ wave. Loss-of-function mutations in the inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP 3 ) receptor ITR-1 reduce pBoc and Ca 2 ϩ oscillation frequency and intercellular Ca 2 ϩ wave velocity. In contrast, gain-of-function mutations in the IP 3 binding and regulatory domains of ITR-1 have no effect on pBoc or Ca 2 ϩ oscillation frequency but dramatically increase the speed of the intercellular Ca 2 ϩ wave. Systemic RNA interference (RNAi) screening of the six C. elegans phospholipase C (PLC)-encoding genes demonstrated that pBoc and Ca 2 ϩ oscillations require the combined function of PLC-␥ and PLC-␤ homologues. Disruption of PLC-␥ and PLC-␤ activity by mutation or RNAi induced arrhythmia in pBoc and intestinal Ca 2 ϩ oscillations. The function of the two enzymes is additive. Epistasis analysis suggests that PLC-␥ functions primarily to generate IP 3 that controls ITR-1 activity. In contrast, IP 3 generated by PLC-␤ appears to play little or no direct role in ITR-1 regulation. PLC-␤ may function instead to control PIP 2 levels and/or G protein signaling events. Our findings provide new insights into intestinal cell Ca 2 ϩ signaling mechanisms and establish C. elegans as a powerful model system for defining the gene networks and molecular mechanisms that underlie the generation and regulation of Ca 2 ϩ oscillations and intercellular Ca 2 ϩ waves in nonexcitable cells.

Rhythmic behaviors are a fundamental feature of all organisms. Pharyngeal pumping, the defecation cycle, and gonadal-sheath-cell contractions are three well-characterized rhythmic behaviors in the nematode C. elegans. The periodicities of the rhythms range from subsecond (pharynx) to seconds (gonadal sheath) to minutes (defecation). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these rhythmic behaviors are not well understood. Here, we show that the C. elegans Rho/Rac-family guanine nucleotide exchange factor, VAV-1, which is homologous to the mammalian Vav proto-oncogene, has a crucial role in all three behaviors. vav-1 mutants die as larvae because VAV-1 function is required in the pharynx for synchronous contraction of the musculature. In addition, ovulation and the defecation cycle are abnormal and arrhythmic. We show that Rho/Rac-family GTPases and the signaling molecule inositol triphosphate (IP(3)) act downstream of VAV-1 signaling and that the VAV-1 pathway modulates rhythmic behaviors by dynamically regulating the concentration of intracellular Ca(2+).

Galectin-1 (Gal1), a β-galactoside-binding protein abundantly expressed in tumor microenvironments, is associated with the development of metastasis in hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC). However, the precise roles of Gal1 in HCC cell invasiveness and dissemination are uncertain. Here, we investigated whether Gal1 mediate epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HCC cells, a key process during cancer progression. We used the well-differentiated and low invasive HepG2 cells and performed 'gain-of-function' and 'loss-function' experiments by transfecting cells with Gal1 cDNA constructs or by siRNA strategies, respectively. Epithelial and mesenchymal markers expression, changes in apico-basal polarity, independent-anchorage growth, and activation of specific signaling pathways were studied using Western blot, fluorescence microscopy, soft-agar assays, and FOP/TOP flash reporter system. Gal1 up-regulation in HepG2 cells induced down-regulation of the adherens junction protein E-cadherin and increased expression of the transcription factor Snail, one of the main inducers of EMT in HCC. Enhanced Gal1 expression facilitated the transition from epithelial cell morphology towards a fibroblastoid phenotype and favored up-regulation of the mesenchymal marker vimentin in HCC cells. Cells overexpressing Gal1 showed enhanced anchorage-independent growth and loss of apico-basal polarity. Remarkably, Gal1 promoted Akt activation, β-catenin nuclear translocation, TCF4/LEF1 transcriptional activity and increased cyclin D1 and c-Myc expression, suggesting activation of the Wnt pathway. Furthermore, Gal1 overexpression induced E-cadherin downregulation through a PI3K/Akt-dependent mechanism. Our results provide the first evidence of a role of Gal1 as an inducer of EMT in HCC cells, with critical implications in HCC metastasis.

SUMMARY Background The peptide mastoparan 7 (MST7) stimulated ATP release in human erythrocytes. We explored intra- and extracellular processes governing the time-dependent accumulation of extracellular ATP (i.e., ATPe kinetics). Methods Human erythrocytes were treated with MST7 in the presence or absence of two blockers of pannexin 1. ATPe concentration was monitored by luciferin-luciferase based real-time luminometry. Results Exposure of human erythrocytes to MST7 led to an acute increase in [ATPe], followed by a slower increase phase. ATPe kinetics reflected a strong activation of ATP efflux and a low rate of ATPe hydrolysis by ectoATPase activity. Enhancement of [ATPe] by MST7 required adhesion of erythrocytes to poly-D-lysin-coated coverslips, and correlated with a 31% increase of cAMP and 10% cell swelling. However, when MST7 was dissolved in a hyperosmotic medium to block cell swelling, ATPe accumulation was inhibited by 49%. Erythrocytes pre-exposure to 10 μM of either carbenoxolone or probenecid, two blockers of pannexin 1, exhibited a partial reduction of ATP efflux. Erythrocytes from pannexin 1 knockout mice exhibited similar ATPe kinetics as those of wild type mice erythrocytes exposed to pannexin 1 blockers. Conclusions MST7 induced release of ATP required either cell adhesion or strong activation of cAMP synthesis. Part of this release required cell swelling. Kinetic analysis and a data driven model suggested that ATP efflux is mediated by two ATP conduits displaying different kinetics, with one conduit being fully blocked by pannexin 1 blockers. General Significance Kinetic analysis of extracellular ATP accumulation from human erythrocytes and potential effects on microcirculation.