Conventional knowledge, resulting from observations and experience, maintains the conviction that there are gender differences in the acquisition, preparation and consumption of food. This review shows differences between the sexes in eating behavior, food choice and nutritional strategy which were conditioned by evolution and by intra-individual (biological or psychological) and extra-individual (socioeconomic and cultural) factors. Women manifest a more pronounced trust in healthy nutrition, greater engagement in controlling body weight, a higher tendency to eat in a group and in stressful situations, and they frequently experience frustration due to their own nutritional behaviors, which reflects higher social pressure and their attempts to reduce eating-related pleasure. On the other hand, men prefer fatty meals with a strong taste, and are directed mainly by the pleasure of consumption; they more frequently furtively eat sweet foods while watching television, use more dietary supplements and more frequently visit fast food restaurants. Nutritional behavior, styles of nutrition, dietary profiles, approach to nourishment, approach to the place of meal consumption, and the sources of nutritional knowledge all demonstrate associations with gender. Reciprocal interactions between gender and diet are conditioned by physiological, psychological and sociocultural factors. This system of reciprocal interactions includes feedback: biological sex and cultural gender shape one's diet and, reciprocally, one's diet affects the deepening or flattening of gender differences. The analysis of reciprocally interacting factors entangled in the formation of a nutritional model may also represent an important element of pro-health prophylaxis and should be used in medical and dietary practice. Males in particular should be informed and educated about health-promoting diets.

No abstract

Diabetes mellitus is a systemic disease which affects patients of various age. Hyperglycemia induces damage of vascular endothelium, development of chronic inflammation, organic and functional lesions in several systems and organs. The principal gastroenterological complaints linked to the manifestation of the disease include abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, flatulence, and vomiting. However, complications in the alimentary system may manifest exclusively by difficulties in reaching normoglycemia and numerous persistent episodes of hypoglycemia. The most frequent complication of diabetes mellitus affecting the alimentary tract involves gastroparesis and disturbances in pancreatic function. Diabetes may also aggravate other coexisting diseases, such as gastroesophageal reflux or periodontitis. Subject-based references accentuate also a significantly more frequent manifestation together with diabetes of other autoimmune diseases, such as celiac disease or autoimmune gastritis. Also, a hepatic microangiopathy and increased incidence of certain tumors, linked to the manifestation of insulin resistance, may be regarded to represent complications of long-term diabetes. Rapid diagnosis and adequate treatment may significantly improve a patient's quality of life and influence the prolonged control of glycemia. Nevertheless, this requires a rigorous analysis of the signs and clinical condition of a patient as well as individualization of recommendations and therapy.

Among indirect tests, faecal elastase-1 test is superior to faecal lipase test in the assessment of exocrine pancreatic function in cystic fibrosis.

Changes to patients’ lifestyle, especially a modified dietary approach, play a key role in the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). A balanced, limiting and individually tailored nutritional scheme enables weight loss and an improvement in the clinical picture of NAFLD. According to nutritional recommendations for patients with NAFLD, carbohydrates should comprise 40–50% of total dietary energy. It is advisable to increase the amount of complex carbohydrates rich in dietary fibre. A major role in the aetiology of NAFLD is played by excessive intake of fructose, which is related to the rise in consumption of nonalcoholic beverages among subjects in developed countries. Fat intake should comprise < 30% of daily calories. It is essential to increase consumption of food products rich in mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Ingestion of protein should constitute 15–20% of total energy.