The capacity of honey bees (Apis mellifera) to detect bitter substances is controversial because they ingest without reluctance different kinds of bitter solutions in the laboratory, whereas free-flying bees avoid them in visual discrimination tasks. Here, we asked whether the gustatory perception of bees changes with the behavioral context so that tastes that are less effective as negative reinforcements in a given context become more effective in a different context. We trained bees to discriminate an odorant paired with 1 mol l −1 sucrose solution from another odorant paired with either distilled water, 3 mol l −1 NaCl or 60 mmol l −1 quinine. Training was either Pavlovian [olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex (PER) in harnessed bees], or mainly operant (olfactory conditioning of free-walking bees in a Y-maze). PER-trained and maze-trained bees were subsequently tested both in their original context and in the alternative context. Whereas PER-trained bees transferred their choice to the Y-maze situation, Y-maze-trained bees did not respond with a PER to odors when subsequently harnessed. In both conditioning protocols, NaCl and distilled water were the strongest and the weakest aversive reinforcement, respectively. A significant variation was found for quinine, which had an intermediate aversive effect in PER conditioning but a more powerful effect in the Y-maze, similar to that of NaCl. These results thus show that the aversive strength of quinine varies with the learning context, and reveal the plasticity of the bee's gustatory system. We discuss the experimental constraints of both learning contexts and focus on stress as a key modulator of taste in the honey bee. Further explorations of bee taste are proposed to understand the physiology of taste modulation in bees.

Animal communication has become a widely studied field of research, especially because of the associated debates on the origin of human language. Due to their phylogenetic proximity with humans, non-human primates represent a suitable model to investigate the precursors of language. This study focuses on the perception of the attentional states of others, an important prerequisite to intentional communication. We investigated whether capuchins (Cebus apella) produce a learnt pointing gesture towards a hidden and unreachable food reward as a function of the attentional status of the human experimenter. For that purpose, we tested five subjects that we first trained to indicate by a pointing gesture towards the human partner the position of a reward hidden by an assistant. Then, capuchins were tested in two experimental conditions randomly ordered. In the first condition-motivation trial-the experimenter was attentive to the subject gestures and rewarded him immediately when it pointed towards the baited cylinder. During the second condition-test trial-the experimenter adopted one of the following attention states and the subject was rewarded after 10 s has elapsed, regardless of the subject's behaviour. Five attentional states were tested: (1) experimenter absent, (2) experimenter back to the monkey, (3) experimenter's head away, (4) experimenter watching above the monkey, and (5) experimenter watching the monkey face. Our results reveal a variation in our subjects' communicative behaviours with a discrimination of the different postural clues (body and head orientation) available in our experimental conditions. This study suggests that capuchins can flexibly use a communicative gesture to adapt to the attentional state of their partner and provides evidence that acquired communicative gestures of monkeys might be used intentionally.

This paper examines the change in the perception of the suburban from an inherently non-sustainable territory to one with environmental, social and architectural potential through a comparative analysis of the suburban in three European countries: Belgium, France and Denmark. The approach identifies urban, architectural, social and environmental constants and variables in each country in order to better illustrate the reasons for and nature of this shift of perception. 104 M. Serre et alii Suburban renewal. Perspectives from Belgian, Danish and French cases ÀGORA The article begins with a comparative insight into the legal contexts and urban policies that have favored or limited suburban development. This review highlights how the increasing focus on sustainable development has introduced the concept of suburban transformation as an integral part of the 'urban sustainability' discourse. Several case studies of renewal initiatives in the three countries are then examined.

Cet article revient sur un dispositif innovant, le Service d’accrochage et de mobilisation des invisibles ( sami ), destiné à détecter et remobiliser les jeunes ni en études, ni en emploi, ni en formation ( neef ) vivant en milieu rural. L’objectif de cette étude collaborative est de comprendre, à partir des entretiens informels et des actions collectives, la démarche d’aller vers des professionnels tout en appréhendant la spécificité du public à hauteur du terrain. Ce travail repose sur l’hypothèse qu’il faut une démarche nouvelle pour amener des jeunes invisibles du milieu rural vers l’insertion. L’article permet de comprendre comment la mise en œuvre de l’aller vers est un outil indispensable pour redynamiser ces jeunes et favoriser une relation aboutissant à un accompagnement co-construit, tout en donnant une image plus précise de ce public et de son besoin d’un accompagnement dans la durée.