Neuronal lesions in Parkinson’s disease (PD) are commonly associated with α-synuclein (α-Syn)-induced cell damage that are present both in the central and peripheral nervous systems of patients, with the enteric nervous system also being especially vulnerable. Here, we bring together evidence that the development and presence of PD depends on specific sets of interlinking factors that include neuroinflammation, systemic inflammation, α-Syn-induced cell damage, vascular dysfunction, iron dysregulation, and gut and periodontal dysbiosis. We argue that there is significant evidence that bacterial inflammagens fuel this systemic inflammation, and might be central to the development of PD. We also discuss the processes whereby bacterial inflammagens may be involved in causing nucleation of proteins, including of α-Syn. Lastly, we review evidence that iron chelation, pre-and probiotics, as well as antibiotics and faecal transplant treatment might be valuable treatments in PD. A most important consideration, however, is that these therapeutic options need to be validated and tested in randomized controlled clinical trials. However, targeting underlying mechanisms of PD, including gut dysbiosis and iron toxicity, have potentially opened up possibilities of a wide variety of novel treatments, which may relieve the characteristic motor and nonmotor deficits of PD, and may even slow the progression and/or accompanying gut-related conditions of the disease.

Giordano et al. [1] in 2017 published a systematic review article on WhatsApp Messenger (WhatsApp) as an adjunctive tool for telemedicine. Telemedicine is defined as the use of electronic communication technologies to provide healthcare support and information between a client and professional with expertise in the relevant field when separated by distance. They found a small number of eligible studies, which did not address ethics or security issues. It was concluded from their review that WhatsApp is a reliable, costeffective, quick and user-friendly tool that improves patient-related awareness and communication within the clinical health sector. This open-access article is distributed under Creative Commons licence CC-BY-NC 4.0.

Sutherlandia frutescens is widely used in indigenous medicine for the treatment of stress- and anxiety-related disorders, and although anecdotal evidence has been scientifically confirmed, relatively little data are available on its potential mechanisms of action. We manipulated a rodent model of acute psychological stress by acutely administering a low dose (4 mg/kg body mass) of S. frutescens extract 30 min prior to stress exposure (1 h restraint), to elucidate both its central and peripheral mechanisms of action in the context of acute stress. After 1 h of exposure to stress, acute restraint resulted in a significant increase in plasma corticosterone levels (56 ± 33 versus 499 ± 50 ng/ml; P < 0.0001) and anterior pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels (0.066 ± 0.017 versus 0.202 ± 0.033% fluorescent area; P = 0.07), while decreasing hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)(A)α1 receptor levels (both P < 0.05). While the low dose of S. frutescens administered did not seem to have an effect on the down-stream stress response, it abolished the stress-induced down-regulation of GR, in a manner independent of GABA(A)α1 receptor. Results suggest a non-sedative effect of low-dose S. frutescens and points to central mechanisms of action that is in support of the anecdotal claims for its effectiveness as complimentary treatment in chronic stress-associated diseases.

Giordano et al. [1] in 2017 published a systematic review article on WhatsApp Messenger (WhatsApp) as an adjunctive tool for telemedicine. Telemedicine is defined as the use of electronic communication technologies to provide healthcare support and information between a client and professional with expertise in the relevant field when separated by distance. They found a small number of eligible studies, which did not address ethics or security issues. It was concluded from their review that WhatsApp is a reliable, costeffective, quick and user-friendly tool that improves patient-related awareness and communication within the clinical health sector. This open-access article is distributed under Creative Commons licence CC-BY-NC 4.0.