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Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a major cause of vision loss in the developed world and its pathogenesis is a topic of active research. To date, much study has been focused on the role of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and Bruch's membrane (BrM) in AMD pathogenesis, but the role of the choroid has also been investigated. In this review, we focus on recent advancements in research in the role of the choroid in AMD, beginning with an exploration of the histopathologic, cellular and molecular changes that occur in the choroid in AMD and concluding by discussing new choroidal imaging techniques and patterns seen on fluorescein angiography, indocyanine green angiography, spectral-domain optical coherence tomography and optical coherence tomography angiography. Exploring these domains will lead to a better understanding of the factors at play beyond the outer retina in this important disease.

Background: Differentiating between papilledema and pseudopapilledema in children presenting with mild-to-moderate optic nerve head elevation is challenging. This study sought to determine which B-scan ultrasonography (BSUS) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) features, individually or in combination, are best able to differentiate between papilledema and pseudopapilledema in children. Methods: Children presenting with optic nerve head elevation of unknown etiology were eligible if they underwent BSUS and OCT performed by the same investigator. The absolute optic nerve sheath diameter (in millimeter) along with the presence/absence of a hyperreflective nodule(s) at the optic nerve head (indicative of druse) from BSUS was determined. The average circumpapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (cpRNFL), diameter of Bruch membrane opening, maximum papillary height, and the presence/absence of hyper-/hyporeflective lesions at the optic nerve head were calculated. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated to evaluate which BSUS and OCT imaging features, individually and in combination, accurately classified children as having papilledema vs pseudopapilledema. Results: One hundred eighty-one eyes from 94 children (mean age, 11.0 years; range, 3.2–17.9) were included; 36 eyes with papilledema and 145 eyes with pseudopapilledema. Among BSUS features, optic nerve sheath widening (>4.5 mm) demonstrated the best sensitivity (86%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 64%–96%) and specificity (88%; 95% CI, 79%–94%) for papilledema. Among OCT measures, cpRNFL thickness of ≥140 µm demonstrated the best sensitivity (83%; 95% CI, 66%–93%) and specificity (76%; 95% CI, 66%–84%) to identify papilledema. The presence of both optic nerve sheath widening (>4.5 mm) and cpRNFL thickness of ≥140 µm reduced the sensitivity (72%; 95% CI, 52%–86%) but increased specificity (95%; 95% CI, 88%–98%). Conclusion: BSUS (optic nerve sheath widening [>4.5 mm]) and OCT (cpRNFL thickness ≥140 µm), individually and collectively, have good diagnostic accuracy for differentiating between papilledema and pseudopapilledema. The presence of druse does not exclude the diagnosis of papilledema.

Minimally invasive glaucoma surgeries have become increasingly popular in recent years, with the iStent Inject trabecular micro-bypass device (Glaukos, Laguna Hills, CA) being a well-tolerated treatment option for mild to moderate glaucoma, available for placement at the time of cataract surgery. While there have been reports of hyphema in the immediate postoperative period, there is little information available regarding etiology and management of delayed-onset, recurrent hyphema following iStent Inject placement. We present a case of recurrent hyphema occurring after iStent Inject placement and describe successful management with surgical removal of the device. Since we observed a reflux of heme originating from the site of stent placement into the anterior chamber intraoperatively when the intraocular pressure was lowered, we hypothesize that placement of the device into a collector channel allowed for influx of heme when the intraocular pressure dropped below episcleral venous pressure.

Purpose:Oleander is a poisonous plant with extensively documented systemic side effects; however, oleander's ophthalmic side effects have not been detailed in the literature. We report a case of oleander-associated keratitis with subsequent corneal edema and anterior uveitis.Methods:This is a case report and review of relevant literature.Results:A 58-year-old woman presented with large corneal epithelial defect after being struck in the eye with an oleander leaf. Despite treatment with topical moxifloxacin, she developed severe corneal edema and anterior uveitis. A diagnosis of oleander-associated ocular inflammation with secondary corneal edema was made, given the temporal relationship, and treatment was initiated with topical prednisolone and cyclopentolate. However, the corneal edema and inflammation continued to progress until oral prednisone and topical difluprednate were initiated. Visual acuity, anterior uveitis, and corneal edema significantly improved with aggressive immunomodulation. Follow-up at 1 month confirmed complete recovery of symptoms, corneal edema and anterior uveitis.Conclusions:Severe corneal edema and anterior uveitis can be associated with oleander exposure. Aggressive treatment with oral and topical steroids may be required without persistent sequelae at the 5-month follow-up. Ophthalmologists should consider this inflammatory reaction if patients experience ocular exposure to oleander.