Termites are model social organisms characterized by a polyphenic caste system. Subterranean termites (Rhinotermitidae) are ecologically and economically important species, including acting as destructive pests. Rhinotermitidae occupies an important evolutionary position within the clade representing a transitional taxon between the higher (Termitidae) and lower (other families) termites. Here, we report the genome, transcriptome, and methylome of the Japanese subterranean termite Reticulitermes speratus. Our analyses highlight the significance of gene duplication in social evolution in this termite. Gene duplication associated with caste-biased gene expression was prevalent in the R. speratus genome. The duplicated genes comprised diverse categories related to social functions, including lipocalins (chemical communication), cellulases (wood digestion and social interaction), lysozymes (social immunity), geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (social defense), and a novel class of termite lineage–specific genes with unknown functions. Paralogous genes were often observed in tandem in the genome, but their expression patterns were highly variable, exhibiting caste biases. Some of the assayed duplicated genes were expressed in caste-specific organs, such as the accessory glands of the queen ovary and the frontal glands of soldier heads. We propose that gene duplication facilitates social evolution through regulatory diversification, leading to caste-biased expression and subfunctionalization and/or neofunctionalization conferring caste-specialized functions.

Conspecific male animals fight for resources such as food and mating opportunities but typically stop fighting after assessing their relative fighting abilities to avoid serious injuries. Physiologically, how the fighting behavior is controlled remains unknown. Using the fighting fish Betta splendens, we studied behavioral and brain-transcriptomic changes during the fight between the two opponents. At the behavioral level, surface-breathing, and biting/striking occurred only during intervals between mouth-locking. Eventually, the behaviors of the two opponents became synchronized, with each pair showing a unique behavioral pattern. At the physiological level, we examined the expression patterns of 23,306 brain transcripts using RNA-sequencing data from brains of fighting pairs after a 20-min (D20) and a 60-min (D60) fight. The two opponents in each D60 fighting pair showed a strong gene expression correlation, whereas those in D20 fighting pairs showed a weak correlation. Moreover, each fighting pair in the D60 group showed pair-specific gene expression patterns in a grade of membership analysis (GoM) and were grouped as a pair in the heatmap clustering. The observed pair-specific individualization in brain-transcriptomic synchronization (PIBS) suggested that this synchronization provides a physiological basis for the behavioral synchronization. An analysis using the synchronized genes in fighting pairs of the D60 group found genes enriched for ion transport, synaptic function, and learning and memory. Brain-transcriptomic synchronization could be a general phenomenon and may provide a new cornerstone with which to investigate coordinating and sustaining social interactions between two interacting partners of vertebrates.

Reactions of vinyl ethers, N-vinyl carboxamides and N-vinyl sulfonamides with trifluoroacetic (or trichloroacetic) anhydride occurred quite easily at room temperature to give corresponding β-trifluoro- or trichloroacetylated compounds in high yields. Reactions with a mixed anhydride, CH3COOCOCF3, gave trifluoroacetylated compounds in high yields, acetyl compounds being not produced.

Mutualistic interactions typically involve the exchange of different commodities between species. Nutritious secretions are produced by a number of insects and plants in exchange for services such as defense. These rewards are valuable metabolically and can be used to reinforce the behavior of symbiotic partners that can learn and remember them effectively. We show here novel effects of insect exocrine secretions produced by caterpillars in modulating the behavior of attendant ants in the food-for-defense interaction between lycaenid butterflies and ants. Reward secretions from the dorsal nectary organ (DNO) of Narathura japonica caterpillars function to reduce the locomotory activities of their attendant ants, Pristomyrmex punctatus workers. Moreover, workers that feed from caterpillar secretions are significantly more likely to show aggressive responses to eversion of the tentacle organs of the caterpillars. Analysis of the neurogenic amines in the brains of workers that consumed caterpillar secretions showed a significant decrease in levels of dopamine compared with controls. Experimental treatments in which reserpine, a known inhibitor of dopamine in Drosophila, was fed to workers similarly reduced their locomotory activity. We conclude that DNO secretions of lycaenid caterpillars can manipulate attendant ant behavior by altering dopaminergic regulation and increasing partner fidelity. Unless manipulated ants also receive a net nutritional benefit from DNO secretions, this suggests that similar reward-for-defense interactions that have been traditionally considered to be mutualisms may in fact be parasitic in nature.