The present study comprises 91 Ichneumoninae species in 34 genera, mainly collected from Eastern part of Turkey (total 390 specimens). Of these, 53 species and 12 genera were new records for the Turkish fauna. Additionally, three species, Coelichneumon nigritor sp. nov., Coelichneumon problematicus sp. nov. and Ichneumon sexcinctoides sp. nov., were described as new for the science. With this study the known Turkish Ichneumoninae increases to 156 species. For the known species, our findings indicate a much wider distribution area than was hitherto known.

Despite more than 250 years of taxonomic research, we still have only a vague idea about the true size and composition of the faunas and floras of the planet. Many biodiversity inventories provide limited insight because they focus on a small taxonomic subsample or a tiny geographic area. Here, we report on the size and composition of the Swedish insect fauna, thought to represent roughly half of the diversity of multicellular life in one of the largest European countries. Our results are based on more than a decade of data from the Swedish Taxonomy Initiative and its massive inventory of the country's insect fauna, the Swedish Malaise Trap Project The fauna is considered one of the best known in the world, but the initiative has nevertheless revealed a surprising amount of hidden diversity: more than 3,000 new species (301 new to science) have been documented so far. Here, we use three independent methods to analyze the true size and composition of the fauna at the family or subfamily level: (1) assessments by experts who have been working on the most poorly known groups in the fauna; (2) estimates based on the proportion of new species discovered in the Malaise trap inventory; and (3) extrapolations based on species abundance and incidence data from the inventory. For the last method, we develop a new estimator, the combined non-parametric estimator, which we show is less sensitive to poor coverage of the species pool than other popular estimators. The three methods converge on similar estimates of the size and composition of the fauna, suggesting that it comprises around 33,000 species. Of

BackgroundThe diversification of organisms with a parasitic lifestyle is often tightly linked to the evolution of their host associations. If a tight host association exists, closely related species tend to attack closely related hosts; host associations are less stable if associations are determined by more plastic traits like parasitoid searching and oviposition behaviour. The pupal-parasitoids of the genus Ichneumon attack a variety of macrolepidopteran hosts. They are either monophagous or polyphagous, and therefore offer a promissing system to investigate the evolution of host associations. Ichneumon was previously divided into two groups based on general body shape; however, a stout shape has been suggested as an adaptation to buried host pupation sites, and might thus not represent a reliable phylogenetic character.ResultsWe here reconstruct the first molecular phylogeny of the genus Ichneumon using two mitochondrial (CO1 and NADH1) and one nuclear marker (28S). The resulting phylogeny only supports monophyly of Ichneumon when Ichneumon lugens Gravenhorst, 1829 (formerly in Chasmias, stat. rev.) and Ichneumon deliratorius Linnaeus, 1758 (formerly Coelichneumon) are included. Neither parasitoid species that attack hosts belonging to one family nor those attacking butterflies (Rhopalocera) form monophyletic clades. Ancestral state reconstructions suggest multiple transitions between searching for hosts above versus below ground and between a stout versus elongated body shape. A model assuming correlated evolution between the two characters was preferred over independent evolution of host-searching niche and body shape.ConclusionsHost relations, both in terms of phylogeny and ecology, evolved at a high pace in the genus Ichneumon. Numerous switches between hosts of different lepidopteran families have occurred, a pattern that seems to be the rule among idiobiont parasitoids. A stout body and antennal shape in the parasitoid female is confirmed as an ecological adaptation to host pupation sites below ground and has evolved convergently several times. Morphological characters that might be involved in adaptation to hosts should be avoided as diagnostic characters for phylogeny and classification, as they can be expected to show high levels of homoplasy.

Despite more than 250 years of taxonomic research, we still have only a vague idea about the true size and composition of the faunas and floras of the planet [1][2][3][4]. Many biodiversity inventories provide limited insight because they focus on a small taxonomic subsample or a tiny geographic area [5,6]. Here, we report on the size and composition of the Swedish insect fauna, representing roughly half the macroscopic diversity of one of the largest European countries, based on more than a decade of data from the Swedish Taxonomy Initiative and a massive inventory of the country's insect fauna [7,8]. The fauna is considered one of the best known in the world, but the inventory has nevertheless revealed a surprising amount of hidden diversity: more than 3,000 new species (301 new to science) have been documented so far. We show that three independent extrapolation methods converge on similar estimates of the true size and composition of the true fauna, suggesting that it comprises around 33,000 species. Of those, 8,600 (26%) were unknown at the start of the inventory and 5,500 (17%) still await discovery. Most of the new species belong to Hymenoptera and Diptera groups that are decomposers or parasitoids. Thus, current knowledge of the Swedish insect fauna is strongly biased taxonomically and ecologically, and we argue that this is likely true for most insect faunas. Addressing these biases is critical in understanding insect biomes and the ecosystem services they provide.Swedish fauna were analyzed from older sources using a less detailed classification [13,20], we split the listed species numbers based on the available literature from the time (see also Table S1). The analysis of the European data, and of taxa expected to occur in Sweden, was based on the Fauna Europaea taxonomy [21].Ecological composition. In the analysis of life-history traits, we focused on two traits that are conservative enough that they can be reasonably assumed, in most cases, to be homogeneous within the family-level groups we used: the main feeding niche and the main feeding (micro-)habitat. This is the niche and habitat of the immature stages (the main feeding stages), and may or may not be the same as the niche and habitat of more short-lived adult stages. Data were taken from standard works [20,[46][47][48][49][50] complemented with data from relevant taxonomic specialists and the primary literature. Specifically, we defined the feeding niches as follows:Parasite. This includes bloodsuckers, endoparasites (botflies) and exoparasites (lice).Phytophage (plant feeder). This includes both chewers and sap suckers, as well as stem borers, leaf miners, root feeders and gall inducers.Phytophage-parasitoid. This is restricted to all primary parasitoids of plant feeders.Predator. This is restricted to free-living predators, it does not include parasitoids. Predator-parasitoid. This includes both primary parasitoids of predators and all hyperparasitoids (parasitoids of parasitoids).Saprophage (decomposer). This includes scavengers, decomposer...

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