Common rue (Ruta graveolens L.) accumulates various types of secondary metabolites, such as coumarins furanocoumarins, acridone and quinolone alkaloids and flavonoids. Elicitation is a tool extensively used for enhancing secondary-metabolite yields. Chitin and chitosan are examples of elicitors inducing phytoalexin accumulation in plant tissue. The present paper describes the application of chitin and chitosan as potential elicitors of secondary-metabolite accumulation in R. graveolens shoots cultivated in vitro. The simple coumarins, linear furanocoumarins, dihydrofuranocoumarins and fluoroquinolone alkaloids biosynthesized in the presence of chitin and chitosan were isolated, separated and identified. There was a significant increase in the growth rate of R. graveolens shoots in the presence of either chitin or chitosan. Moreover, the results of the elicitation of coumarins and alkaloids accumulated by R. graveolens shoots in the presence of chitin and chitosan show that both compounds induced a significant increase in the concentrations of nearly all the metabolites. Adding 0.01% chitin caused the increase in the quantity (microg/g dry weight) of coumarins (pinnarin up to 116.7, rutacultin up to 287.0, bergapten up to 904.3, isopimpinelin up to 490.0, psoralen up to 522.2, xanhotoxin up to 1531.5 and rutamarin up to 133.7). The higher concentration of chitosan (0.1%) induced production of simple coumarins (pinnarin up to 116.7 and rutacultin up to 287.0), furanocoumarins (bergapten up to 904.3, isopimpinelin up to 490.0, psoralen up to 522.2, xanhotoxin up to 1531.5) and dihydrofuranocoumarins (chalepin up to 18 and rutamarin up to 133.7). Such a dramatic increase in the production of nearly all metabolites suggests that these compounds may be participating in the natural resistance mechanisms of R. graveolens. The application of chitin- and chitosan-containing media may be considered a promising prospect in the biotechnological production of xanthotoxin, isopimpinelin, psoralen, chalepin or methoxylated dictamnine derivatives.

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The study aimed to elucidate the effects of benzothiadiazole (BTH) and saccharin on the biosynthesis of simple coumarins, linear furanocoumarins, dihydrofuranocoumarins, and furoquinolone alkaloids in shoots of R. graVeolens cultivated in vitro. The biosynthesized metabolites were analyzed and identified by GC-MS and by comparison of Kovats indices. Eight coumarin metabolites were identified: bergapten, chalepin, isopimpinelin, pinnarin, psoralen, rutacultin, rutamarin, and xanthotoxin, and also four alkaloids: dictamnine, γ-fagarine, skimmianine, and kokusaginine. Each of the tested BTH concentrations induced a significant production of furanocoumarins and furoquinolone alkaloids. The use of saccharin also increased the production of bergapten, isopimpinelin, pinnarin, psoralen, and xanthotoxin several times. IntroductionThe in vitro culture of R. graVeolens is a useful biotechnological source of biologically active linear furanocoumarins and furoquinolone alkaloids. Linear furanocoumarins, particularly xanthotoxin, bergapten, and isopimpinelin, have been applied in the treatment of skin diseases characterized by excessive cell proliferation (e.g., psoriasis, mycosis fungoides) or in pigmentation disorders (e.g., vitiligo) (1) and also in neurology (the symptomatic treatment of demyelinating diseases, particularly multiple sclerosis) (2). In addition, alkaloids like dictamnine and methoxydictamnine from R. graVeolens tissues are wellknown antimicrobial factors (3). Apart from their antibiotic effect, furoquinolone alkaloids appear to have a spasmolytic effect (4). The biological effects of furanocoumarins and furoquinolone alkaloids makes them attractive for pharmaceutical uses, hence the considerable interest shown in their availability and sources. However, the commercial production of secondary metabolites is usually limited by their low yield. Elicitation has therefore become an extensively used tool for enhancing secondary metabolites: it is an integral part of any large-scale process for secondary metabolite production.The mechanisms of action of biotic and abiotic elicitors are thought to be different; they are complex, and many hypotheses have been set up in this regard. Moreover, since little is known about the biosynthetic pathways of secondary metabolites, the effect of an elicitor on a plant cell or tissue culture is not easily predictable; the majority of elicitation approaches are therefore empirical (5). The search for elicitors is of the utmost importance in order to obtain the most effective biotechnological system for producing the required metabolites. The objective of our study was to elucidate the effects of saccharin, as well as benzothiadiazole (BTH, benzo(1,2,3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothionic acid S-methyl ester) on the biosynthesis of simple coumarins, linear furanocoumarins, dihydrofuranocoumarins, simple coumarins, and furoquinolone alkaloids in shoots of R. graVeolens cultivated in vitro.Benzothiadiazole is the main component of the BION preparation (6, 7). Chemically, it is a functional...

Ruta graveolens L. is a source of pharmacologically active compounds such as coumarins, furanocoumarins and furoquinolone alkaloids. Hypocotyls, callus and shoots of R. graveolens were inoculated with bacteria from two Agrobacterium rhizogenes strains. Hairy root cultures were established after inoculation of hypocotyls with wild A. rhizogenes strain LBA 9402. The transgenic nature of the regenerated tissue was confirmed by PCR amplification. Coumarins, furanocoumarins and alkaloids present in the hairy root tissue were identified by GC and GC-MS and compared with those present in in vitro shoot cultures. The level of pinnarin and rutacultin, bergapten, isopimpinelin and xanthotoxin was approximately twofold higher in hairy root than in shoot cultures. Two additional coumarins: osthole and osthenol, never been found in R. graveolens, were identified in hairy root tissue. Besides coumarins, alkaloids were identified: dictamnine, skimmianine, kokusaginine, rybalinine and an isomer of rybalinine. The levels of nearly all coumarins and alkaloids in hairy roots cultured in the darkness were higher than those accumulated under a photoperiod mode.

Growth of Ruta graveolens shoots was induced when Bacillus sp. cell lysates were added to the culture medium. Elicitation of coumarin by this lysate was also very effective; the concentrations of isopimpinelin, xanthotoxin and bergapten increased to 610, 2120 and 1460 microg g(-1) dry wt, respectively. It also had a significant effect on the production of psoralen and rutamarin (680 and 380 microg g(-1) dry wt) and induced the biosynthesis of chalepin, which was not detected in the control sample, up to 47 microg g(-1) dry wt With lysates of the Pectobacterium atrosepticum, their effect on growth was not so significant and had no effect on the induction of coumarin accumulation. But elicitation with this lysate was much more effective for inducing the production of furoquinolone alkaloids; the concentrations of gamma-fagarine, skimmianine, dictamnine and kokusaginine rose to 99, 680, 172 and 480 microg g(-1) dry wt, respectively.