l e t t e r sTo elucidate the genetic bases of mycorrhizal lifestyle evolution, we sequenced new fungal genomes, including 13 ectomycorrhizal (ECM), orchid (ORM) and ericoid (ERM) species, and five saprotrophs, which we analyzed along with other fungal genomes. Ectomycorrhizal fungi have a reduced complement of genes encoding plant cell walldegrading enzymes (PCWDEs), as compared to their ancestral wood decayers. Nevertheless, they have retained a unique array of PCWDEs, thus suggesting that they possess diverse abilities to decompose lignocellulose. Similar functional categories of nonorthologous genes are induced in symbiosis. Of induced genes, 7-38% are orphan genes, including genes that encode secreted effector-like proteins. Convergent evolution of the mycorrhizal habit in fungi occurred via the repeated evolution of a 'symbiosis toolkit', with reduced numbers of PCWDEs and lineage-specific suites of mycorrhiza-induced genes.Fungi are often described as either saprotrophs, which degrade complex organic substrates, or biotrophs, which obtain carbon compounds from living hosts. Among the latter, ECM fungi provide crucial ecological services in interacting with forest trees. They are portrayed as mutualists trading host photoassimilates for nutrients and having limited capacity to decompose soil lignocellulose 1-3 , as a result of their reduced repertoire of PCWDEs 4-6 . However, recent studies are challenging this view [7][8][9][10] . An improved understanding of the ability of ECM fungi to decompose lignocellulose is needed to resolve mechanisms of nutrient cycling in forests. The ECM lifestyle in Laccaria bicolor is associated with the expression of new mycorrhizainduced small secreted proteins (MiSSPs) that are required for establishment of symbiosis 11,12 . Mycorrhizal symbioses have arisen repeatedly during fungal evolution and include not only ECM associations but also those with ERM and ORM mycorrhizae 13 . It is not known whether these symbioses share the genomic features found in L. bicolor 4 and Tuber melanosporum 5 . Here we assess whether there Convergent losses of decay mechanisms and rapid turnover of symbiosis genes in mycorrhizal mutualists

The catches and discards of trawlers, seiners and trammel netters were studied in the Algarve (southern Portugal) using observers onboard commercial ®shing vessels. Species diversity was high, with 236 species recorded as occasionally, frequently or regularly discarded. Mean discard rates per trip were 0.13, 0.20, 0.27, 0.62 and 0.70, respectively, for trammel nets, demersal purse seines, pelagic purse seines, ®sh trawls and crustacean trawls, with high variability in terms of discard volume and discard rate. This was especially so for seiners where from 0 to 100% of the total catch might be discarded. No signi®cant relationships were found between discard quantity or discard rate and characteristics of the ®shing vessels sampled within each me tier (total length, TAB, hp, kW). Based on the above discard rates and the ocial landings, it was estimated that in 1996, Algarve trawlers discarded 9000±13000 tonnes (t) while seiners discarded 5500±8200 t. Discarding practices in these ®sheries are reviewed and the reasons for discarding are presented by species and me tier basis. The results support the need for more studies on the factors contributing to discarding, variability in discard quantities and rates, the fate of discards and their importance to the marine ecosystem, and on ways of reducing by-catch and discarding in these ®sheries.U.S.

RESUMO -Objetivou-se neste trabalho avaliar os efeitos dos herbicidas na atividade respiratória da microbiota, na biomassa microbiana e no quociente metabólico em solo cultivado com plantas de cana-de-açúcar. Utilizou-se o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, no esquema de parcelas subdivididas, com quatro repetições. Nas parcelas, avaliou-se o efeito dos herbicidas e, nas subparcelas, o efeito do tempo após a aplicação destes. Os herbicidas utilizados foram: 2,4-D (1,30 kg ha -1 ), ametryn (1,00 kg ha -1 ), trifloxysulfuron-sodium (0,0225 kg ha -1 ) e a mistura ametryn+trifloxysulfuron-sodium (1,463+0,0375 kg ha, respectivamente). Realizou-se a aspersão dos herbicidas aos 60 dias após a brotação das gemas do material propagativo. Aos 15, 30, 45 e 60 dias após a aplicação dos herbicidas, amostras de solos rizosférico e não-rizosférico foram coletadas e analisadas quanto às seguintes características: taxa respiratória (TR), carbono da biomassa microbiana (CBM), quociente metabólico (qCO 2 ) e acúmulo total de C-CO 2 evoluído do solo (ATC). O ametryn aplicado isolado ou em mistura com trifloxysulfuron-sodium propiciou maiores TRs, ao passo que o 2,4-D apresentou pouca influência nessa variável. Maiores acúmulos de C-CO 2 aos 60 dias após a aplicação dos herbicidas foram verificados nos tratamentos com trifloxysulfuron-sodium, ametryn e na mistura de ambos os produtos. A BM do solo foi reduzida na presença do ametryn isolado ou em mistura. Esses tratamentos resultaram em maiores valores de qCO 2 aos 45 e 60 dias da aplicação.Palavras-chave: Saccharum spp., biomassa microbiana, quociente metabólico, ametryn, trifloxysulfuronsodium, 2,4-D.ABSTRACT -The objective of this work was to evaluate the impact of the herbicides ametryn and trifloxysulfuron-sodium, singly or combined, and 2,4-D, on respiratory rate, microbial biomass, and metabolic quotient on sugar cane-cultivated soil. A completely randomized design was adopted in a split-plot scheme with four replications. The effect of the herbicides was evaluated in the plots and the effect of time after herbicide application in the split-plots. The herbicide doses, in kg ha -1 , were: 1.30 (2,4-D), 1.00 (ametryn), 0.0225 (trifloxysulfuron-sodium), and 1.463 + 0.0375 for the mixture ametryn + trifloxysulfuron-sodium,, respectively. At 60 days after shoot emergence, the herbicides were sprayed on the sugarcane plants. At 15, 30, 45, and 60 days after herbicide application, rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric soil samples were collected and analyzed for respiratory rate (RR) microbial biomass (MB), metabolic quotient (qCO2), and total C-CO 2 evolved from the soil (TCE). Ametryn applied singly or combined with trifloxysulfuron-sodium led to higher RR, while 2,4-D alone had little influence on this variable. Higher TCEs were verified in the soils of the treatments with trifloxysulfuron-sodium, ametryn, and with the compounds combined. Soil MB was reduced in the presence of ametryn applied singly or combined. These treatments resulted in higher values of qCO2 at 45 and 60 days...

The simultaneous release of various chemical elements with inhibitory potential for phosphate solubilization from rock phosphate (RP) was studied in this work. Al, B, Ba, Ca, F, Fe, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Si, Sr, V, Zn, and Zr were released concomitantly with P during the solubilization of Araxá RP (Brazil), but only F showed inhibitory effects on the process at the concentrations detected in the growth medium. Besides P solubilization, fluoride decreased fungal growth, citric acid production, and medium acidification by Aspergillus niger. At the maximum concentration found during Araxá RP solubilization (22.9 mg F(-) per liter), fluoride decreased P solubilization by 55%. These findings show that fluoride negatively affects RP solubilization by A. niger through its inhibitory action on the fungal metabolism. Given that fluoride is a common component of RPs, the data presented here suggest that most of the microbial RP solubilization systems studied so far were probably operated under suboptimal conditions.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients typically suffer of persistent and recurrent lung infections caused byPseudomonas aeruginosa that many times possess ability for the biofilm production. Here, biofilm production among P. aeruginosa isolates recovered from sputum of CF and non-CF patients was evaluated.Most isolates were biofilm-producing independently of the patient's condition.