The identification of the causal effects of grade retention policies is of enormous relevance for researchers and policymakers alike. Taking advantage of the availability of more detailed longitudinal datasets, researchers have been able to apply different identification strategies that address the classical problems of selection bias and unobserved heterogeneity that have plagued previous studies on the effect of retention. We present a systematic literature review of empirical studies aiming to unveil the causal effects of retention. This study underlines the need to consider and evaluate different kinds of grade retention polices as their effects vary depending on several dimensions (such as timing of the policy, comparison groups, length of the effects or institutional settings). According to the results of our review, we conclude that grade retention is unlikely to be an efficient policy as the costs associated to the policy can easily outweigh the potential (weak) benefits of retention. It is therefore necessary to consider alternative policies to retention, or policies that can be used in combination with it, in order to enhance the performance of low achievers, in particular those students at risk characterized by a low ability profile.
Empirical evidence mostly describes the negative effects of grade repetition on academic performance. Nevertheless, the international use of this educational policy is still widespread. In this study, drawing on data for the Spanish case, we provide additional evidence on the need to consider different policies to grade repetition in order to enhance the achievement of low-performers. These alternative policies should be based on two main principles: individualized treatment and early intervention. Results have been achieved from the application of a novel methodology which allows to combine microdata from two international educational assessments.
This study examines the development of mathematical and financial literacy skills amongst 471 students in Spain. Most studies on this topic have looked at either one or the other skill but they have not examined the relationship between the two. The use of simultaneous equations has enabled us to do so. The aim of the paper is to disentangle the factors determining the financial skills of young consumers in Spain. To do this, the PISA Financial Literacy Assessment conducted by the OECD in 2012 is used. Our paper’s main contribution lies in the methodological way to deal with the empirical challenges overshadowing our study. Particularly, our methodological strategy is defined by the application of a multi‐level model of simultaneous equations (MSiEM). This method allows us to take into account the simultaneous determination of math and financial skills at school and the nested structure of the database. This MSiEM permits the identification of the determinants of financial skills, differentiating between the influences operating at school level from those at student level. A first conclusion is that the development of financial abilities of young consumers is mediated by their mathematical skills. A second conclusion, in accordance with those of other international studies, is the importance of the family on the financial literacy of 15‐year‐old Spanish students. The family, a first‐order determinant in reading, science and math scores, is also a key variable in the development of financial skills. Finally, school type (public vs. private) does not display any effect on either the financial or math performance of Spanish young people.
Bullying is a problem that affects children and teenagers around the world and its repercussions can endure throughout adult life. Its prevalence is, in part, a product of the lack of information and the paucity of studies which analyse the wideranging consequences for the individuals involved. The main objective of this research is to study the incidence of bullying on the academic performance of students in education centres in the Madrid Region. The databases used are those of Competency Tests carried out on all 10th grade students in Madrid during the year 2017. These external assessment tests evaluate Spanish language, English language, Mathematics, and Geography and History. Along with these tests, the students, their families, their teachers and head teachers complete comprehensive questionnaires. To analyse all these data, we carry out a multilevel methodological approach to identify the quantitative association of bullying with academic performance and to estimate the probability that performance is affected by the level of bullying that exists in the education centres. The results indicate that bullying has a negative impact on all the competencies evaluated, that the probability of a lower academic performance increases in environments where there is bullying and that bullying can affect students with low or high academic achievement in different ways, depending on what competency is evaluated.
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