When we evaluate an option, how is the neural representation of its value linked to information that identifies it, such as its position in space? We hypothesized that value information and identity cues are not bound together at a particular point but are represented together at the single unit level throughout the entirety of the choice process. We examined neuronal responses in two-option gambling tasks with lateralized and asynchronous presentation of offers in five reward regions: orbitofrontal cortex (OFC, area 13), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC, area 14), ventral striatum (VS), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC, area 25). Neuronal responses in all areas are sensitive to the positions of both offers and of choices. This selectivity is strongest in reward-sensitive neurons, indicating that it is not a property of a specialized subpopulation of cells. We did not find consistent contralateral or any other organization to these responses, indicating that they may be difficult to detect with aggregate measures like neuroimaging or studies of lesion effects. These results suggest that value coding is wed to factors that identify the object throughout the reward system and suggest a possible solution to the binding problem raised by abstract value encoding schemes.
Active maintenance of rules, like other executive functions, is often thought to be the domain of a discrete executive system. An alternative view is that rule maintenance is a broadly distributed function relying on widespread cortical and subcortical circuits. Tentative evidence supporting this view comes from research showing some rule selectivity in the orbitofrontal cortex and dorsal striatum. We recorded in these regions and in the ventral striatum, which has not been associated previously with rule representation, as macaques performed a Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. We found robust encoding of rule category (color vs shape) and rule identity (six possible rules) in all three regions. Rule identity modulated responses to potential choice targets, suggesting that rule information guides behavior by highlighting choice targets. The effects that we observed were not explained by differences in behavioral performance across rules and thus cannot be attributed to reward expectation. Our results suggest that rule maintenance and rule-guided selection of options are distributed processes and provide new insight into orbital and striatal contributions to executive control.
We are often faced with the need to abandon no-longer beneficial rules and adopt new ones. This process, known as cognitive set reconfiguration, is a hallmark of executive control. Although cognitive functions like reconfiguration are most of-ten associated with dorsal prefrontal structures, recent evidence suggests that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) may play an important role as well. We recorded activity of OFC neurons while rhesus macaques performed an analogue of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task that involved a trial-and-error stage. OFC neurons demonstrated two types of switch-related activity, an early (switch-away) signal and a late (switch-to) signal, when the new task set was established. We also found a pattern of match modulation: a significant change in activity for the stimulus that matched the current perceptual rule (and would there-fore be selected). These results extend our understanding of the executive functions of the OFC. They also allow us to directly compare OFC with complementary data-sets we previously collected in ventral (VS) and dorsal (DS) striatum. Although both effects are observed in all three areas, the timing of responses aligns OFC more closely with DS than with VS.
23We are often faced with the need to abandon no-longer beneficial rules and adopt 24 new ones. This process, known as cognitive set reconfiguration, is a hallmark of 25 executive control. Although cognitive functions like reconfiguration are most often 26 associated with dorsal prefrontal structures, recent evidence suggests that the 27 orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) may play an important role as well. We recorded activity of 28 OFC neurons while rhesus macaques performed a version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting 29Task that involved a trial-and-error stage. OFC neurons demonstrated two types of 30 switch-related activity, an early (switch-away) signal and a late (switch-to) signal, when 31 the new task set was established. We also found a pattern of match modulation: a 32 significant change in activity for the stimulus that matched the current rule (and would 33 therefore be selected). These results extend our understanding of the executive functions 34 of the OFC. They also allow us to directly compare OFC with complementary datasets 35 we previously collected in ventral (VS) and dorsal (DS) striatum. Although both effects 36 are observed in all three areas, the timing of responses aligns OFC more closely with DS 37 than with VS. 38All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission.
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