Aims The growing need to access recycled water as a source for drinking water supply necessitates management of perceived risks. This study aimed to use quantitative microbial risk analysis (QMRA) to evaluate microbiological risks of indirect water recycling. Methods and results Scenario analyses of risk probabilities of pathogen infection were conducted to investigate four key quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model assumptions: treatment process failure, drinking water consumption events per day, inclusion or exclusion of an engineered storage buffer, and treatment process redundancy. Results demonstrated that the proposed water recycling scheme could meet WHO pathogen risk guidelines of ∼10−3 annual risk of infection under 18 simulated scenarios.

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P er-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of man-made chemicals used in a variety of industries and consumer products, often for their water-, oil-, and stain-resistant properties. Common PFAS uses are food packaging, nonstick surfaces in cooking pans and pots, and fire-resistant coatings for carpets or clothing, among many others. PFAS manufacturing facilities, as well as airports and military installations using firefighting foams (which contain PFAS), are significant PFAS sources in the environment. However, most human PFAS exposure is through diet, according to Sunderland et al. (2019). This means a possible nonindustrial source of PFAS in municipal wastewater is human excretion.