Response-to-intervention (RTI) technical adequacy standards should follow from model purpose, procedural specification, procedural adherence, outcome determination, and subsequent plans. Therefore, RTI raises atypical measurement questions for practice, and, for this reason, it may require hybridized technical adequacy methods. Due to RTI model complexities, and the possibility of many measures and variables used over time to examine functional discrepancies in performance, decision reliability and validity questions require significant attention. Key points of analysis and recommendations for RTI technical adequacy standards are addressed, and a case study is used to illustrate technical checks. We conclude with discussion of how RTI technical adequacy may be simplified.With response to intervention (RTI), the potential for bringing intervention science to education has never been stronger. To apply RTI procedures, consideration is given to prevention, screening, sequences of instruction and interventions, use of scientifically based approaches, and decision rules for changing instruction and interventions. Each intervention is developed from data including control conditions (i.e., data that show what might happen without the instruction or intervention), outcomes, and subsequent intervention decisions. Each structure (i.e., tier), process, and objective (i.e., social, academic, disability evaluation) raises questions about technical adequacy, and standards for RTI will be required that have yet to be expected in practice. Applying Messick's (1995) arguments for the need to address the evidential and the consequential bases of validity, we examine possible technical adequacy standards for RTI as a new area of broad-spectrum practice (Batsche et al., 2005) and suggest what those standards may look like.

Spontaneous, volitional spatial exploration is crucial for building up a cognitive map of the environment. However, decades of research have primarily measured the fidelity of cognitive maps after discrete, controlled learning episodes. We know little about how cognitive maps are formed during naturalistic free exploration. Here, we investigated whether exploration trajectories predicted cognitive map accuracy, and how these patterns were shaped by environmental structure. In two experiments, participants freely explored a previously unfamiliar virtual environment. We related their exploration trajectories to a measure of how long they spent in areas with high global environmental connectivity (integration, as assessed by space syntax). In both experiments, we found that participants who spent more time on paths that offered opportunities for integration formed more accurate cognitive maps. Interestingly, we found no support for our pre-registered hypothesis that self-reported trait differences in navigation ability would mediate this relationship. Our findings suggest that exploration patterns predict cognitive map accuracy, even for people who self-report low ability, and highlight the importance of considering both environmental structure and individual variability in formal theory- and model-building.

No abstract

Innovations in information technology have generated an array of options for the professional learning for educators. Face-to-face, remote, and hybrid formats for professional learning each have their advantages and disadvantages for advancing educators’ knowledge and skills in evidence-based practices to promote student achievement. The purpose of this study was to better understand teacher and educational leaders’ preferences for professional learning formats in relation to the intended learning objective. The results indicate that educators preferences for professional learning format varied by the intended learning objective of the session. Remote professional learning was preferred relative to face-to-face and hybrid formats for a session in which the primary objective was to share information uni-directionally from the presenter to the audience (53% versus 25% and 22% preferred hybrid). The respondents were equally split in their preference for either a face-to-face or remote format when the learning objective was to understand new concepts and learn how to apply the concepts to their setting. The results have important implications for designing professional learning.