This study addressed questions about improvement in mental rotation skills: (1) whether growth trajectories differ for men and women with higher or lower spatial experience, (2) whether videogame training has effects on performance and leads to transfer, (3) whether effects of repeated testing or training effects are durable and (4) whether transfer is durable. Undergraduates participated in repeated testing on the MRT or played the videogame Tetris. Analyses showed large improvements in mental rotation with both repeated testing and training; these gains were maintained several months later. MRT scores of men and women did not converge, but men showed faster initial growth and women showed more improvement later. Videogame training showed greater initial growth than repeated testing alone, but final performance did not differ. Effects of videogame training transferred to other spatial tasks exceeding the effects of repeated testing, and this transfer advantage was still evident after several months.

Researchers interested in the associations of gender with spatial experience and spatial ability have not yet focused on several activities that have become common in the modern digital age. In this study, using a new questionnaire called the Survey of Spatial Representation and Activities (SSRA), we examined spatial experiences with computers and videogames in a sample of nearly 1,300 undergraduate students. Large gender differences, which favored men, were found in computer experience. Although men and women also differed on SAT scores, gender differences in computer experience were still apparent with SAT factored out. Furthermore, men and women with high and low levels of computer experience, who were selected for more intensive study, were found to differ significantly on the Mental Rotations Test (MRT). Path analyses showed that computer experience substantially mediates the gender difference in spatial ability observed on the MRT. These results collectively suggest that the "Digital Divide" is an important phenomenon and that encouraging women and girls to gain spatial experiences, such as computer usage, might help to bridge the gap in spatial ability between the sexes.

As computer technology continues to pervade every facet of life, the study of video game playing becomes more relevant. Studies show that sex differences continue to exist between men and women, boys and girls, in video game experience, favoring males. Few studies show any overlap in preferences between young men and women in their video gaming choices. The current study surveyed over 2,000 college undergraduates for video game experience, preferences, and selfefficacy. Although it was found that men play video games more often, have had more experience, and feel more confident in their game playing ability, a moderate female gaming population was found to exist, who also play video games regularly. Almost as many similarities as differences were found between men and women in their gaming preferences. Suggestions and implications for the video game industry are discussed.Sixty-eight percent of U.S. households play computer video games, and 42% of American homes own at least one gaming console (Entertainment Software Association 2009). This statistic is unsurprising given the rise of computer technology in American culture. Video games may play a significant role in forming children's attitudes about technology (Bennett and Bruner 2000). In fact, a recent study showed that 90% of adolescents, both male and female, thought that technology (including video games) is "cool" and regularly use it and discuss technology with friends (Twentyman 2008). National studies show that on average, 30% of children aged zero to six have played video games, while about one in six (16%) of four to six year-olds plays video games daily (9% boys and 2% girls) for an Curr Psychol (2011) 30:22-33

Metacognition is linked to academic achievement and personal development, especially as it relates to leadership education. The current study investigated the impact of a course in metacognition. Two hundred and fifty one undergraduates were surveyed for metacognitive ability using the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) and Metacognitive Rubric (MR) before and after participating in a course either involving metacognitive training or alternative coursework. While minimal demographic differences were found, results showed significant improvement among students who trained in the metacognition class. Curricular development in the area of metacognition is recommended as it relates to leadership education.

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