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The concepts of typical masculinity and typical femininity (i.e., stereotypes), and also ideal masculinity and ideal femininity, were rated by 40 male and 40 female college students. The judgments were made by means of the Concept Meaning Measure, a semantic differential of masculinity and femininity, which was constructed on the basis of six hypothesized factors. Factor analysis of the results yielded two major factors, potency and social behavior, in each of the four concepts. The analysis of the stereotypes also resulted in five additional factors—activity, emotion, form, tactility, with another one, a residual, for masculinity and one, dependability, for femininity. The ideal concepts had six additional factors which were not as clearly delineated and suggest a more complex relationship than exists in the stereotypes. The obtained factors, in general, matched the factors which had been hypothesized, but the outstanding quality of the two major factors had not been predicted. The correspondence of the hypothesized and obtained factors was much more satisfactory for the stereotypes than for the ideal concepts. The relative importance of the various factors and the implications concerning social change were discussed.

AMONG the response sets which have been identified (Cronbach, 19a0), one of the most intensively studied has been that of social desirability (Edwards, 1957). Much of the research has been directed toward methods of eliminating the effect of social desirability on personality and interest test scores.One approach to the problem of minimizing social desirability has been to construct forced-choice versions of these tests. A typical forced-choice item consists of two or more statements, each measuring a different factor and all equated for social desirability. The testee is instructed to pick the statement most applicable to himself. One rationale for such a procedure goes as follows:Since the statements are of equal social desirability, the testee cannot make himself look better by choosing one, rather than another, of the statements; consequently, he will answer honestly. Obviously the equating for social desirability is the critical manipulation in construction of a forced-choice test. The purpose of the present paper is to investigate the meaningfulness of such equating of social desirabilities.Social desirability is typically determined by having many subjects rate each of the potential test statements for social desirability. Items whose average social desirabilities are approximately equal over the group can then be paired in a single item. Edwards (1957) finds that such average ratings have wide generality for items such as those used in the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (1953~; age, sex, and socio-economic status of the test group at The University of Iowa Libraries on June 15, 2015 epm.sagepub.com Downloaded from

PROBLEMThe relationship of therapist and client is generally considered to be an extremely important variable in psychotherapy. A number of people have asserted that an atmosphere of acceptance of, and warmth toward, the client is prerequisite to psychotherapeutic effectiveness. The present study is one of a series investigating conditions of therapeutic climate and their relations to variables such as reinforcement. These experiments are being carried out under laboratory conditions with the hope of establishing relationships and principles which can be tested in actual therapeutic situations.Reece and Whitman(l) used verbal reinforcement of plural nouns in a free association task employed in conditions of experimenter warmth and coldness which were defined by E's expressive movements. They found a significant interaction of expressive movements and verbal reinforcement which enhanced the productivity of the reinforced verbal response. In addition, both the climate, determined by the expreasive movements in the different conditions, and the verbal reinforcement were found to be significant.The present experiment was designed to reinforce the total verbalization by means of periodic verbal reinforcement, in contrast to the reinforcement of a specific class of response such as plural nouns. The major focus, however, was upon the climate variable, not verbal reinforcement. METEODThe experimental procedure consisted of a semi-structured word association task employed in a 2 x 2 factorial design with 36 introductory psychology students.The S was instructed to say all the words he could think of which begin with the particular letter indicated on each of a set of flash cards. The learning period yas comprieed of six trials, each one of four minutes duration. The letters used were S-M-R-C-P-A and were presented in rotated order. All responses were recorded on magnetic tape.The Ss were randomly assigned to four groups: warm-reinforced, warm-nonreinforced, cold-reinforced, and cold-nonreinforced."Warm" and "cold" were dehed in terms of the E's expressive movements. In the "warm" condition, E leaned toward the Ss, looked directly at him, and smiled. When %old", E leaned away from the S, looked away from him and did not smile. The expressive movements were maintained throughout the experimental Session. E was periodically viewed by an experienced judge through a one-way mirror to insure adherence to the dehed conditions.The first learning trial was used to determine the baseline of task proficiency; hence, no reinforcement was given to any S during this trial. With the second trial and thereafter, E reinforced the verbalization of the S by saying "mm-hmm" at 30 second intervals. If a response was not being emitted a t that instant, the next response was reinforced. All reinforced Ss received the same number of reinforcements.After the final learning trial, the S was given a questionnaire to complete. The items were concerned with both the S's behavior, and attitude and reactions to the E. The S was asked to judge the E as ...

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